WORLD GOVERNMENT, ECONOMICS, EDUCATION, RELIGION AND ETHICS

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WORLD GOVERNMENT, ECONOMICS, EDUCATION, RELIGION AND ETHICS

CONTENTS

FOREWORD

PART I
MEMORANDUM ON WORLD GOVERNMENT 1-39
1. Preamble 3
2. Genesis 11
3. Other Partial Approaches 15
4. Unique and Positive Qualities 19
5. Active Programme 23
6. Jurisdiction, Revenue, Resources, etc. 31
7. World Law 33
8. Conclusion 37

PART II
ONE-WORLD ECONOMICS 41-151
9. Introduction 43
10. Gold in Wisdom's Language 53
11. Towards a One-World Economic 71
12. Proto-Linguistics Applied to Economics 147

PART III
ONE-WORLD EDUCATION 153-245
13. Introduction 155
14. World Education Manifesto 163

PART IV
RELIGION AND ETHICS 247-259
15. One Religion 249
16. Ethics Normalized 255

INDEX 375

PART I
MEMORANDUM ON WORLD GOVERNMENT

PREAMBLE
The subject which concerns us here is that of World Government. In the light of Samuel Johnson's statement that "politics is the last refuge of scoundrels"; and in view of the more than evident nuisance-value created by the din of rival politicians at the time of political elections, contemplatives are naturally expected to steer clear of all politics. The question arises then as to why spiritual and contemplative persons like ourselves, speaking of Unitive Understanding (advaita), and taking our position on the long spiritual tradition of India, should dabble in such subjects as government and politics at all; and the general reader would be justified in wanting to know the place of Advaita Vedanta in such a context.

Vedanta comes into contact with the problem of human welfare only indirectly, and sometimes after prayers there is a sort of ending benediction of "shanti", which consists of saying, "let all people in the world be happy". The welfare of humanity is thus not altogether outside the scope of the Vedantic tradition of India. Suffering anywhere in the world must be considered as belonging to the subject. Every such situation has the subjective side or the self-aspect which

might be outside the context of actual suffering, and the objective side or the non-self aspect, which is the actual seat or scene of such sufferings.

Advaita Philosophy, which is no other than the way of Unitive Understanding in its essence, must be capable of equating the self and the non-self as interchangeable terms. The suffering of fellow man thus equates itself naturally with the suffering of every true Vedantin. Bliss (ananda) and suffering (dukha) both take place within the self, which has the absolute status of cancelling its own subjective and objective prejudices. Advaita is a supposition taken between two rival aspects of the same problem. Thus the welfare of humanity and the suffering of even the smallest animal, such as an ant going to be lightly trampled upon by a vedantin, become subjects of equal concern to him by the two sides of the situation in which he is to be correctly situated.

It is not the suffering as we see it in the headlines of a morning newspaper, glanced at before breakfast in a light-hearted way, that is to be kept in mind here. Headlines big and small reflect major or minor disasters which take place in this world; and what is read in one daily newspaper is forgotten by the next morning's breakfast. This is the common way of taking a casual interest in politics. The difference between this way and the contemplative way that belongs to the Gurukula is that our interest does not fluctuate between morning and evening, or even between weekdays and Sundays.
Newspaper politics has to be reduced to a common numerator or denominator. We get thus a dialectical approach to politics which is, in our case, to be distinguished by two other terms besides Unitive Understanding. Firstly, we are interested in geo-politics, and not just politics. This implies that we treat of the planet Earth as a unit called "geos", in which politics is to be discussed in terms of Ius Solis, the Justice of the Earth. We are thus interested in world politics, and not just local or even national party politics. Secondly, our politics is based on a dialectical approach, the essence of which can be stated by the formula inscribed on the shields of the two female figures in the

monument of the Swiss Confederation in Geneva, Switzerland. One tall female figure holds a shield bearing the inscription, "One for All"; the other corresponding counterpart of the same tall woman holds another shield, though placed on the ground, with the reciprocal part of the formula, "All for One". Thus between the General Good and the Good of All there is a dialectical interplay of values. Politics emerges into view, as amply proved in the "Social Contract" of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, when two factors, one standing for the General Good and the other for the Good of All, come into interplay.

These subtleties require much more elaboration than we can make in these short preliminary remarks. Geo-politics, thus understood geo-dialectically, is a special branch or discipline. We cannot go into all the detailed aspects here, but we can refer to some of the salient features of the geo-dialectical approach to World Government by way of indicating some of the highlights and by way of underlining some of the characteristics of this kind of politics, to show that such a subject is not outside the scope of a contemplative or spiritual way of life, especially at the present time, when mass communication portends a time when humanity will receive messages which cannot be distinguished from the medium, nor the medium from the message.

HUMANITY IS ONE
This is the a priori given basis of the World Government outlined in this memorandum. The recognition of the unity and solidarity of mankind follows from the correct application of the scientific or unitive approach to the problems of humanity. Just as belief in many gods is incorrect, so when humanity is considered relativistically as consisting of closed groups - however big or justified in the name of power or practicability - such a view violates this first and fundamental principle of the indivisible unity of Man. Humanity is one by its common origin, one in its common interests and motives of happiness here on earth in everyday living, and one in its relation to the aspirations and ideals which bind human beings together by bonds of sympathy for each other.

A unitive and absolute value is at the basis of human life. This high human value knows no frontier, either actual or ideological. It makes no discrimination between rich and poor, high and low, civilised and backward. Sympathy for suffering and indignation against injustice to fellow men transcends time and clime, and reaches out evenly or pointedly, as the case may deserve, to the uttermost recesses of the one world which man inhabits.

HUMAN NATURE, 'GOOD' AND 'BAD' AT ONCE
To say that evil does not exist and that God created all men of good will sounds unrealistic to modern ears after all the experience of humanity which historians have recorded. To state, on the contrary, that evil is the basis of human life, leaves us equally unconvinced. The wary man would back out of the paradox involved by saying that the verdict would depend on the particular case, and refuse to generalise. He might even go further and say sophistically that the possibility of error or evil in human nature is what makes man human at all; and by the same token it could be argued that even evil must have a basis of goodness. Such arguments have brought human affairs up against impasses again and again. We are no nearer to the right answers to such questions than we were thousands of years ago. General scepticism drives people to sit on the fence.

Irrespective of time or clime, wise men have repeatedly tried to teach us a way out of these dilemmas. There is a method and a theory of knowledge proper to wisdom, which is not the same as that of logic, ratiocination or even 'objective' or mechanistic intelligence.

A NEW YET TIME-HONOURED APPROACH
Such an approach should be scientifically formulated. It will then resolve conflicting counterparts of a given situation or problem unitively, without conflict. Just as one humanity is true; so one absolute justice for all mankind, one goodness applicable to all mankind, and one God or ideal of human happiness could be stated to be at the basis of common human existence. The ordering of human life on unitive lines is the function of the World Government envisaged in the present memorandum.

THE SCIENCE OF DIALECTICS
Whether human life is fundamentally good or bad does not concern us here as directly as whether it is possible to cancel out evil by the good residing in human nature itself: i.e. whether there is still hope for humanity to overcome ignorance by wisdom. The static verity of human goodness or badness should be viewed dynamically as belonging to the flow of human life shaping itself in time. Living unitive thinking is concerned with the progressive shaping of human life based on values which fuse into an ever newly-integrated flux which is subject to a constant process of becoming. The old order changes, giving place to the new. It is in this sense that wisdom is a perennial way of contemplation. This wisdom forms part of a science which could be called dialectics. The truth that makes men free and the knowledge that gives power are open and dynamic human values to be understood in the light of dialectics. The 'evil' that is necessarily present in human nature, when viewed unitively according to dialectics, is as true as the 'goodness' inherent in human nature, when viewed in a similar way. All values, positive or negative, when unitively understood, belong to a vertical scale of values which man must recognize, and at every moment he has to choose between opposite alternatives. At each step here a constant process of dialectical revaluation is involved, whether in the life of each man, each unit group, or of humanity as a whole. Such an approach to world affairs is what this memorandum recommends, and it is this which makes it so unique as legitimately to claim the attention of all lovers of humanity who are interested in a World Government, which for the first time is scientifically conceived. This newly formulated science, wherein pure dialectical reasoning is applied to problems of the world, may be called the 'Science of Geo-Dialectics'.

THE GEO-DIALECTICAL METHOD
The geo-dialectical method consists of clearly recognizing the two counterparts which belong together in any given situation or problem to be eased or resolved in human affairs. Man is caught in necessity or bondage on the one hand; and on the other reaches out towards the contingent factor of freedom. If we could say that his necessity is symbolized either by the need for bread or by common hunger; contingency is symbolized by the need to live and breathe freely, and in fulfilling one's life according to the inner urges within each man. Man has to fulfil life according to his own nature without being stifled or suffocated. Bread and freedom, resolved into unitive terms of a central value, spell happiness. When each man is happy, all mankind is happy. When there is a general happiness of mankind as a whole, each man has his happiness most secure. No mother is happy unless her child is also happy; and no ruler is happy unless the subjects too are happy. To recognize and deal with the dialectical counterparts - while respecting fully the nature of the individual or the integrated personality of normal units called nations in such a manner as to cancel out counterparts in unitive terms of positive human values conducive to human happiness - is the basis of the geo-dialectical method. Being an applied part of pure dialectics, the full implications of this statement can be clarified only after studying dialectics. (1)

ANOMALIES, ABSURDITIES AND DANGERS OF THE MECHANISTIC APPROACH
The non-dialectical, non-unitive, mechanistic or unilateral approach which does not respect the integrated personality of nations or individual citizens gives rise to many anomalies, absurdities and disasters. If the case of a mother is taken up without including with it the case of the child; if the case of a ruler is taken without considering the ruled; or the master's case without the servant's - and even if we should forget to take into account that the one and the many are interdependent or reciprocally interrelated in a subtle dialectical manner - we invoke disasters large or small and sow the seeds of injustice and consequent suffering.

Each man consists of what he is subjectively and what he holds as dear as life itself, such as his money, his family, or even his faith. These adhere closely to each person and result in the happiness that he craves for. National and cultural groups also have integrated personalities of their own which cannot be subjected without injury to a mechanistic treatment which is merely based on quantitative statistics or facts. Such roots of integration lie deeply buried in history. The partitioning of nations has resulted in genocidal tragedies.

Operating through decades or centuries, historical necessity gives the raison d'être to the jigsaw-puzzle-patterns of the differently-coloured patches on the mapped surface of the globe which school children are taught to distinguish as self-contained or autonomous political units, entities, states, countries or nations. Sometimes such patches tend merely to mark an area where lives an amorphous mass of people who are dictated to by external forces. Even while the child is being taught political geography, the patches change their outline or encroach on each other with a strange irrationality. These patches are not the result of any scientific ordering of the world, but are arbitrary and haphazard in their origin and growth.

They have been traced by wars old or recent, whether just or unjust, and the de facto status of certain units does not correspond to their de jure status in the present set-up of nations. The status of member-nations in present-day international bodies such as the United Nations depends on the veto or whim of the powers that be. No public or objective norms prevail here. Neither the natural law of the jungle, nor any law consciously formulated in any manner in keeping with the much-vaunted dignity of man, regulates internationalism at present.

THE ZERO HOUR FOR THE DECLARATION OF A WORLD GOVERNMENT IS PAST
In the days of chivalry, willing combatants fought duels in strict accordance with certain codes of honour consistent with human dignity as understood in those olden days. But the day has now come when a brave general is reported to be proudly contemplating the extermination of whole sections

of people by the latest weapons which human intelligence itself has placed at the service of irresponsible adventurers. Instead of the knight-errant helping women and children in distress, humanity today hears of threats against the innocent and the unarmed. We hear of war criminals punished after wars have ceased, when we are not sure whether the punishment or the crime violates human codes of honour or justice. While their children wait for the horrible news outside the prison, parents get the electric chair for not keeping their own intelligence from helping those whom one nation or other suspects for the time being. Politics too keeps strangely changing its own complexion from day to day. Concentration camps and the lot of millions of displaced families who are denied papers year after year, making illegal even their right to work and earn a living - thus in effect taking away their de facto status as fellow human beings - prove that the days of barbarity and slavery are not over. Exposed to fear and insecurity, humanity knows not which way to turn for consolation. Helplessly, it looks on with impotence when the dignity of humanity itself is at stake. The zero hour for the declaration of a World Government, at least in principle, is long past. Such a Government must voice human honour and self-respect. It must preserve the wisdom-heritage of humanity and hand it down to coming generations. Those who love humanity and absolute human values at every level and in every department of life must be protected. Those who hate their fellow men for reasons that are not universally valid are as good as not existing. Those who adhere to rival relativist values are bound, in any case, to cancel one another out. There is no real need to name the enemies of humanity, because their days are numbered if humanity has any hope of survival at all. That humanity will survive, the supporters of World Government do firmly and solemnly believe.

Therefore the time has come for all lovers of humanity to take a definite stand, avoiding double-talk, duplicity, compromise and doubt.

NOTES
1. See "Dialectical Methodology", "An Integrated Science of the Absolute", and other allied works by the present author.

2. GENESIS

WORLD GOVERNMENT IS AN ACCOMPLISHED FACT
The World Government came into being (in principle at least) at Long. 63° 25' West, Lat. 44° 32' North on Sept. 4, 1953. Utter necessity was its justification. Very special states of stress, both personal and global, ushered it into being when a stateless person was forced into a closed territory against his own will or consent. Even a de facto citizen of the world already, with a fine record of service to the same closed territory or 'nation', was denied the right to make a living or pursue his own happiness. There was no government to represent him or stand by him. The World Government had therefore to be conceived, as though immaculately - though neither illegitimately, disloyally, nor dishonourably - born. "Time waits for no man"; "Better now than never"; "Necessity knows no law"; "All is fair in love and war" - these are some of the sayings that hold good here. It takes only two to start a quarrel or sign a pact, and only one to tell the truth. It is not numbers that can justify a government, but its intrinsic quality based on Absolute Truth or Justice. It takes but one to steer the ship to safety, though hundreds may weep and wail in vain.

THE VALIDITY OF THE WORLD GOVERNMENT IS NOT QUESTIONABLE
If even today the simple accident of being born in a so-called royal family can justify the formation of an absolute monarchy. It can be seen that no principle of geo-dialectics is violated by the formation of a World Government. The World Government has no territory other than the surface of the globe. It is not conceived as a rival to any existing government, it does not intend to duplicate any of their functions, nor does it wish to be a parallel government, nor has it ambitions to be a super-state. On the other hand, it has no wish to occupy a second place among nation states. It has an absolute status of its own as understood in the light of the science of geo-dialectics already referred to in the usually- understood sense. The World Government has no programme of action or territorial ambition. It does not rule by force or by the power of magistrates or the police. Knowledge is its power and, instead of threats or punishments, it relies on the dictum that a word to the wise will suffice. Just as a ball of iron can be made white-hot without the ball itself suffering division, change, or control from outside, so the World Government proposes to influence humanity in and through humanity, and for humanity. Nothing is to be disrupted in the process. A certain type of truth which has been called the 'pearl of great price', the 'little leaven that leaveneth the whole lump' or that 'dharma' (right way of life), 'even a little of which will save from great fear' is the pinch of absolutist wisdom which is to be added to the chaotic world-situation so as help us to reorientate, reintegrate and regulate human affairs. In other words, the World Government applies a subtle form of vertical pressure corresponding to spiritual heat or electricity. Order then emerges, as with magnetised iron filings from non-magnetised chaos.

CONFIRMATION OF THE WORLD GOVERNMENT
A second step forward in the formation of the World Government was taken at Long. 77° 38' East, Lat. 12° 58' North, on May 15, 1956. A recessive part of the world, never even to be suspected of any intention to dominate the world through its power, has been chosen this time as the location from which to confirm and sanction the first formation of the World Government in a dominant part of the world. To rise above suspicion, World Government has to be established neutrally between the dominant and the recessive aspects of world political life. No one carrying the threat of the atom bomb in one hand and a message of peace in the other can be trusted by others who sail in the same boat. Relativism breeds rivals while the correctly dialectical or absolutist approach unites and frees men in the name of a humanity which is understood unitively.

Between the initial formation of the World Government and its later more precise formulation and confirmation, nearly three years of experimentation, meditation and study have been undertaken. This second time, as stricter geo-dialectics would require, there were two sides, represented by two men, in the solemn pact before the declaration of the World Government. One of these contracting parties represented the good of all and the other represented the general good. This subtle dialectical contract sets the pattern for the growth of the World Government. Such a formation of an actual government, at least in a nuclear form, has been duly announced. More conferences could be contemplated in the near future in different parts of the world, involving those who represent the general good or the good of all, or both. The nuclear yet actual government will gather momentum by the good will of the people of the world from day to day, so as to become an efficient and effective instrument for the reorientation and regulation of human affairs under the aegis of the most high principle of Goodness, or the most supreme value of happiness that humanity can accept to regulate its life.

This memorandum hereby greets all lovers of humanity with the happy news of the birth of the World Government. Its presence is to be felt, not especially in any fixed locality or centre, but in every part of the world, wherever it can best serve its supreme purpose which is the political happiness of humanity

It is however the global, unitive one-world politics of all mankind with which we are concerned here. Because of its absolutist character, this can be called both politics and no-politics at once, or a politics that gets rid of politics. In other words, the World Government is based on the pure politics to be known as geo-politics.

3
OTHER PARTIAL APPROACHES

ALL APPROACHES HITHERTO ARE EITHER NEGATIVE OR RELATIVISTIC
To the natural question why we should not join hands with other organisations working already in the field of internationalism, we have to answer that there is the fundamental drawback that all of them are vitiated by either a negative or a relativistic approach. What we mean by these two expressions must be somewhat clear from what we have already said.

By negativism we mean that proposals for peace or disarmament have been based on a regret or a fear connected with wars just fought or wars expected. At such moments there is great volume of collective emotion available and those who offer quick results get nations to pay large sums for preserving peace, or in the name of security. The regret, however, passes, as also the fear. Positive attitudes take their place, and one organization which failed to fulfil its contract is succeeded by another in a modified form. This is how the League of Nations was displaced by the United Nations.

The latter may be expected to go the way of its predecessor as soon as its impotence in the matter of securing peace becomes evident to all. It is patent that, in spite of its declared intentions, the UN has not been able to make its member-nations reduce their armaments, nor has it been able to mitigate the national excesses of its member nations. Of course in some matters it is better than nothing, but in other matters it is worse than nothing. Representatives of major nations get the chance to call each other names at the glorified debates held under the auspices of these bodies. With points of order, explanations of votes, amendments, counter-amendments and arbitrary powers of veto or methods of filibustering or blocking through satellite members, the UN has no power to implement even the smallest item in its own Declaration of Human Rights, not to speak of objecting to the dangers of atomic tests. Actually, it is used by power-groupings to sling mud at each other. At best it is a glorified debating society employing thousands of interpreters, stenographers and clerks who live and move in a beehive of modern buildings. They are obliged to keep the powers that be in good humour.

Every effort has already been made by the sponsors of the present World Government to try and work through the UN. The story is too long to relate here. Suffice it to say that it has been a signal failure.

By relativism we mean that some sort of duality, as between free nations and others who are not so, is still retained in the structure of the organization. The organization is not unitively conceived according to any science of absolutism. Representation, admission, or expulsion are based on no uniform norms of any science universally or publicly formulated.

PRIVATE, PARTIAL OR PARTY ORGANIZATIONS WITH WORLD PROGRAMMES
There are various religious, political or even commercial bodies which influence world affairs. There is the Communist Party, which shapes the trend of world politics. Then there is the Catholic Church and various other bodies which have world programmes.

Commercial combines and banking agencies fulfil, openly or secretly, many functions which properly should belong to a World Government. These serve humanity in good, bad or indifferent ways; but as long as a correctly-formulated World Government is not there, no one has any right to find fault with whatever service they render or even with whatever exploitation they consciously or unconsciously exercise in world affairs.
International organisations exist in many departments, such as the Universal Postal Union, etc. Member nations may or may not ratify their resolutions, and even when they do so, the limitations of their own arbitrary sovereignty or nationalism are not wholly discarded. The approach to such problems is not based at present on any exact science such as we claim to be at the basis of the World Government envisaged in this memorandum. This class of organisation can be almost good or the next best - but just as one cannot jump a chasm in two leaps or expect a prize for the number nearest to the one that wins the prize, so the wholesale scientific basis of the World Government is all-important. The science of geo-dialectics is based on a rare and precious way of higher reasoning without which no World Government can be expected to succeed. Such undertakings would not be justified even if they should obtain a large measure of success. Here almost true is not good enough. This same verity is couched in the old saying that 'good government is no substitute for self-government'. The mandate for any government has to be derived from the people who are to be governed on the one pole; and from another pole, derived from the absolute justice implicit in any such government. Like religion or morality, there are two different sources to World Government. It has to be the resultant of ascending and descending dialectical counterparts. Such principles, however, can be made clear only in the light of general dialectics, which has still to be formulated and taught in the proposed Institute of Dialectics. Meanwhile we are here obliged to state with seeming dogmatism that partial and unscientific approaches to the problem of World Government are not valid.

4
UNIQUE AND POSITIVE QUALITIES: WHAT THE WORLD GOVERNMENT IS NOT
We have already stated in passing that the World Government is not based on power with weapons or threats of punishment. Its authority is derived from humanity's need for it and from its rightness and justice. It has been mentioned also that it has no territorial ambitions or designs. It does not propose to arrogate to itself any functions that are already being fulfilled correctly by existing governments. No overlapping or duplication of functions is in the scheme presented here. Neither is diarchy or a parallel form of government contemplated. However, in spite of this position, the World Government will not be second to any other government. It will consciously avoid functioning even as a supra-state in the usual sense. If we should want to think of the political theory on which it is to be based, it can be said here in advance that it does not subscribe to the laissez-faire doctrine. Much less does it adhere to the doctrine of 'might is right', which, though more positive, is still outmoded. The Benthamian doctrine of 'the greatest happiness of the greatest number' is also not in keeping with the principles of the present Government.

It does not think quantitatively at all. That would make it fall into the capital error of being mechanistic or relativistic in its approach - which we have stated to be the very drawback we wish to avoid. It is based on a dialectical approach to world problems. What this implies we shall clarify as much as possible below.

BASED ON A SOLEMN PACT
The World Government is based on a solemn pact between the people of the world and their own dialectical counterpart in the form of a wise lover of humanity representing the general good of humanity as a whole. Although stated in the form of two aspects, these counterparts form the obverse and reverse of the same coin called Absolute Happiness, Goodness, or Justice of Humanity. This is a unitive central value, whatever the word-stimulus employed may be. Moreover, it is essentially a human value in keeping with the dignity of the human species. Bread and freedom will be provided for all when such a government comes into its full swing of effective and efficient working, by the conscious co-operation and understanding of the people of the world. Stated in the most general terms, the task of the World Government will be the intelligent ordering of human life-activities in a manner normal and natural to man, without violating his own innate dispositions, legitimate interests, or aspirations.

THE WORLD GOVERNMENT MUST GOVERN ITS SUBJECTS ACTIVELY OR POSITIVELY
It must be practical and effective in its functioning. Mere pious hopes like that of wanting to establish the kingdom of heaven on earth will not improve matters. A government worth the name must deliver the goods or benefits belonging to the domain of politics. It must make human life on earth less full of humiliation, helplessness or suffering. While this is right, the World Government must guard itself from falling into the opposite error of getting involved in a maze of overt actions which will fan feelings of rivalry and create more warring camps than ever.

To avoid war, to guarantee collective security, to make co-existence possible or to practise the virtues of the "panca-sila" (the 'five principles' of the Bandung Conference, ED) of non-interference, or to cultivate an attitude of positive neutrality, have been the recommendations of some of the world's politicians for improving human affairs. These recommendations, though good as far as they go, embody the negative side of the virtue of international life. To leave matters well alone and not to make more rules than are necessary, are cardinal virtues for the World Government to cultivate. Stopping at harmless virtues which are still relative will not make a World Government function normally. The positive programme of the World Government has at every stage to balance or cancel out the negative, so as to strike the just mean between war and peace, activity and passivity, hot and cold attitudes, co-operation and competition. A constant pressure has to be maintained between these opposing tendencies so as to throw up constantly a higher value as an ideal for humanity.

POSITIVE PRESSURE AND VERTICAL ASCENT
A man becomes a better man by intensely and consciously wanting to be good. When he is good he should mind his own business and not interfere with others. His own inner urges as a man, insofar as they are in keeping with human nature as understood scientifically in all its bearings, have normally to get the full play of expansion and expression, without clashing with others who want to have the same chances. Those deep-seated specific qualities which distinguish man and make him unique and unrivalled, must be brought out into creative expression instead of lying dormant or unfulfilled. If virtues such as these apply to the individual, they could apply equally to families as normal units of human life. Rural or urban units could have personalities cultivating the same virtues or moral principles in keeping with a science or philosophy of human life. Bloated amorphous political units must also attempt to conform to the requirements of this geo-dialectical absolutist morality. When all formations follow the same laws, the order which constitutes World Government can be expected. No feverish horizontal activity is here involved.

A certain positive pressure resulting in a vertical ascent is what needs to be constantly maintained in human life. This pressure can also be compared to a moral or spiritual heat or to the magnetising influence of a current of electricity. The principle of double negation and double assertion as known to scholastic philosophy in Europe should be understood as implicit here. Only a fuller treatise on geo-dialectics itself can clarify such matters more completely or elaborately.

5
ACTIVE PROGRAMME: WHAT THE WORLD GOVERNMENT ACTUALLY PROPOSES TO DO
What the World Government actually proposes to do is first and foremost to bring to bear a new and total world-outlook upon world problems. It will help to turn out more and more world citizens. They will be human beings who have attained the full status of persons who represent the general good and the good of all. While making themselves happy according to the light of dialectical wisdom, they will constantly strive for the happiness of their fellow men in a manner consistent with the same wisdom. Such a balanced life between two interests, unitively treated, will enhance the value of the individual in society. He will carry with him a subtle influence or presence. Such a person would be a modern version of a knight-errant seeking the right kind of adventure to face in the name of his love of humanity. He would soon be appraised of innumerable opportunities presenting themselves to him where he can render signal service to his fellow men without going at all out of his way. Many such functions might lie outside the scope of geo-politics proper, with which alone we are primarily concerned in this memorandum.

However, this should not deter such a man or woman from placing his or her high personal credit at the service of the cause of world citizenship and World Government. To call oneself a sovereign citizen of the world and consciously to affiliate oneself wholeheartedly to the noble ideal, reveals in one who does so the true human value which a lover of humanity must carry within him, thus enhancing his value at once with reference to himself and to all others with whom his lot is to live on earth. These are the rights and duties that such an affiliation at once confers.

As such a status comes from an understanding of the science involved, there is no danger of groups of such people considering themselves as belonging to any superior caste or group. The danger of such a contingency need not, however, be ruled out. On the contrary, all such world citizens should be taught to keep this danger constantly in their minds, to correct themselves consciously, and to help fellow world citizens to do the same. The danger, however, should not deter humanity from launching the undertaking; just in the same way that burst boilers or air crashes do not deter people from navigation or flying. Moreover, by the overall unitive approach which is the basis of the whole new outlook involved in the World Citizenship Movement, the danger of clannishness or caste-mindedness can always be counteracted consciously, even when the tendency is there. This unitive outlook is more deeply rooted than at that level of life where World Citizenship has to express itself, which at most is the waking world of the conscious ego. The unitive approach to reality will permeate the subconscious, the infra conscious, and the fourth stratum of transparent or direct awareness in the individual, so that the danger of exclusiveness as an individual will be countered very effectively. This is the definite advantage of this approach to world problems, being actually a particular branch of the general science of wisdom-dialectics. This will further guarantee proportion, balance, normality, wholesomeness, harmony, and humane grace or correctness to World citizenship.

The success of the World Government depends on its ability to produce the right kind of world citizens as its champions in different parts of the world. They could be described as the most important single asset on the side of the undertaking.

POLITICAL PROGRAMMES CAN BE MADE EFFECTIVE FROM INSIDE OR OUTSIDE, FROM ABOVE OR BELOW, THE PRESENT FORMATION.
Once the reorientation of the spirit or the change of heart in regard to world problems has taken place in a given individual, and he feels keenly that he has to do something for the furtherance of his ideal, it is possible for him to do it from where he naturally happens to be. If he is a legislator he can stand for election on a World Government ticket. The immense popularity of the One World idea will only enhance his chances of success. According to qualitative geo-dialectical principles it would not be wrong for him to enter any given council, big or small, national or local, urban or rural, swearing allegiance to the head of that group or the head of several groups for the time being; for in doing so he would be recognizing only the symbolic absolutism implicit or inherent in the person (president or monarch) who happens to be at the head. Moreover, in terms of the universal human values for which he is a politician, there is no contradiction or conflict between the interests of that particular political unit and the human interests of the world itself taken as a unit. There is a geo-dialectical secret involved here which could be brought out by a homely example. If an old well should be hidden by a flood which covered it later, the water that quenches the thirst is the same water, whether it comes from the hidden well or from the lake overcovering it. There is no conflict possible between two concentric circles. This is the ancient wisdom found in the Bhagavad Gita, which comes to the rescue of world politics and by which the walls of all the Jerichos in the world must fall. The blast of absolutism from inside or outside the walls, or both together; by those placed superiorly above or in, as it were, helpless positions below - dominant or recessive men or women the world over have only to want with real solemn earnestness to make the World Government effective. Thus will the work of World Government become most practicable, positive, and irresistible.

HOW TO PRACTISE WORLD POLITICS FROM INSIDE
When once elected to a local or national body on a World Government ticket, the man or woman concerned takes a course of action in keeping with the principles of humanity and world morality or value comprised between the two poles of bread and freedom. Taking his stand on the norms and standards of geo-dialectics, the world citizen generally takes a middle-of-the-road position in respect of leftist or rightist parties, and generally supports the president when absolute justice, morality or the ideal are not violated by his position. When resolutions are moved or voting is explained he gets a chance of placing before those who are politically-minded a new approach based on global human interests. He can bring token motions to cut armament budgets when disproportionate, and the people's sense of justice can be appealed to. If he should be ousted from the Council the people will follow him into the street if his cause is just and in the name of the interests of the common man and humanity at once.

Here, for the present, the possibilities of such action from inside must be left to the imagination. When permanent support for the world approach is certain, 'mondialisation' within such units is not impossible. Symbolic acts in keeping with the code of honour or morals proper to the world citizen could be resorted to, resembling Tolstoyan or Gandhian methods, as revised in the light of a stricter geo-dialectical science.

THE PRACTICE OF WORLD POLITICS FROM ABOVE
Men, and more especially women, who occupy positions of influence or who have resources at their command, can study the plans of World Government and bring their weight to bear on the side of supporting human rights and preserving the best in the heritage of mankind, whether in art, culture, or wisdom. Dante, Shakespeare, and Kalidasa belong to humanity first, and the claims of particular nations are for them only incidental.

There is also the one perennial contemplative tradition based on a science of the Absolute, which is the common property of humanity. In preserving these and in protecting the common wisdom-heritage of mankind the best interests of the common man will be secured also.

Poor men, who have to make a living wherever it is at present available to them, are kept from freely reaching out to their God-given opportunities by artificial man-made rules. These rules must be broken down. Travel becomes more and more difficult and rules are piled upon rules by nations big and small, for no valid or justifiable reason except to retaliate in the name of national pride or exclusiveness. Parochialism, tribalism, casteism, and nationalism have much in common with fanaticism or blind orthodoxy. A world-philosophy and religion, critically and scientifically ordered, will help to relieve the existing asphyxiating conditions wherein miserable men and women have to live in the prison of criss-cross rules which is the present world. All modern people are keenly aware of this stifling atmosphere. The well to do, the influential, or at least their wives, must take interest in the poor, not to disrupt anything or anybody, but to bring just that kind of legitimate pressure which will ease the trouble of the common man. There can be a World Order of Ladies or Knights who could function as supervisors, permission authorities, world guards or witnesses of natural integrity, peacemakers or arbitrating advisers in the numerous walks of life in all matters ranging between the gaining of bread and the gaining of personal or spiritual freedom.

Premarital, post-marital and familial arbitration or advice, helping juveniles and children with possible maladjustments, the re-education of delinquents, psychological guidance, a pedagogy which respects the personality of the child, co-operative centres for the reclamation and relaxation of persons caught in the stress of life or in conditions of tension, and occupational guidance or treatment - these are only a few of the fields in which the world citizen could help the lot of humanity from wherever he or she might be living. A complete philosophy and a way of life shaped on unitive and absolutist lines are of course presupposed here. It will be the task of the World Institute of Human Affairs to elaborate, formulate, and make this available in the different languages of the world.

THE PRACTICE OF WORLD POLITICS FROM BELOW
Individual men and women are caught in the barbed-wire frontiers, both ideological and actual, of rules and interdictions against freedom to pursue happiness freely and peacefully on the surface of the God-or-Nature-given earth. There has been no way hitherto for the articulation of their grievances. Not content with enforcing the rules of their own country, police belonging to one country have begun to help other countries in enforcing wrong rules in the name of internationalism. There is thus a double barrage of many absurd rules which themselves are multiplied beyond reason or necessity. The clever ones somehow get around every restriction, but the lot of the ordinary man becomes difficult. One only has to linger for a few minutes at passport or permit offices to be convinced of the large volume of suffering to which men and women are subjected. To refer even to a few typical cases would be outside the scope of this memorandum and would mar the sobriety of style which we wish to preserve here as far as possible. In one of his works, Ruskin had a paragraph from a daily newspaper printed in red ink because the subject was shocking to all decent human sentiments. The untold sufferings of the common man because of red tape and regulations would have to be printed in some other ink if they are to find a place in a memorandum such as this is intended to be.

What the common man could do is to register with the World Government as a world citizen and try to bring a vertically- conceived pressure to bear on the situation. He has to rely on numbers here to cope with the machinery of governments, which have a great deal of inertia in them. All shoulders have to be applied to the wheel to set affairs going normally. The trumpet blasts for absolute fairness from outside the walls of Jericho have to resound in consonance with the trumpet blasts from above or inside.

THE OVERALL FUNCTIONING OF THE WORLD GOVERNMENT
The inarticulate feelings of the soul of humanity or the emergent personality of the people of the world, have to find a voice in the World Government. The point of view of the World Government has to be broadcast unhesitatingly, in no uncertain terms and even with authority. Truth must be given a chance to prevail. Relativistic compromise is what makes humanity weak at present. These are facts which need no repetition here. As the World Government emerges more and more into public view, it will represent the conscience of humanity and will spotlight from day to day the errors detrimental to humanity's interests. In such a task it must keep clear from tacitly or openly becoming a tool in the hands of any existing power-block. Even if help should be obtained from one quarter more than another, the World Government must be above suspicion in pointing out mistakes. The cheap headline-world of propaganda must be avoided. A Voice of Humanity and a World News Agency may be started to serve the cause of the World Government.

THE ISSUANCE OF WORLD PASSPORTS
The issuance of World Passports has already commenced. This would ease the situation arising in the cases of millions of persons who have no national status within nations. The response of nations is already there. Such persons will henceforth belong to the World Government. Their combined voice will and must be heard through the instrumentality of the World Government.

PROCLAMATION OF THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS
The proclamation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights made by the United Nations in Paris in 1948 gives a legitimate overall function covering many points so far remaining unimplemented. Many major and minor nations are already committed to the thirty articles in this declaration. In bringing vertical pressure to bear on this matter of implementation of that declaration, the World Government would be in fact only helping the great number of nations to be true to their avowed undertakings.

TO HAVE A WORLD COMMITTEE
To have a World Committee to give assent to the World Government and its functions from time to time, to hold World Conferences to compare notes, and do all that is incidental to the formation and correct functioning of the Government, are also matters which are naturally to be provided for as normal to the programme of the Government as it is expected to unfold and expand quickly or gradually, as outside conditions and innate forces warrant. Powers of supervision and assent may be vested in a representative Select Committee of those who are wise normally or who have received proper training in the Institute of Dialectics connected with the World Government.

6
JURISDICTION, REVENUE, RESOURCES, ETC., TERRITORIAL JURISDICTION
The territorial jurisdiction of the World Government is the surface of the Earth. It does not think about owning any limited area to run its own primary government with land taxes, frontiers to protect, and defence arrangements. Overweighed with these items, present governments are in many ways outmoded remnants of the past which must all be subjected to drastic revision. These revisions will take place automatically when the World Government as envisaged here begins to be more and more effective. Globalisation of select units of administration is not to be ruled out.

REVENUE
Revenue is to be derived from the principle of indirect taxation as it prevails even now. Though indirect, the revenue will be by mutual consent. Services rendered by the Government could be charged for and, while prime necessities will be exempt even from such taxation as far as possible, items of luxury could be freely taxed.

Such matters will be attended to by the World Service Authority under the World Government. Indirect taxation is a form of profit which it is open for the World Government to make against services rendered. In fact, there exist even now trade combines and banking corporations - not to speak of religious bodies - which have enormous assets, sometimes as large and general as those of many existing governments. Economic and financial experts can see through the irregularities of some of the present monetary and other arrangements in which, by words such as 'going off the gold standard', or in dividing the world into 'hard' and 'soft' currency areas, wealth is conserved in pockets which, when examined by standards of absolute justice, do not belong to them. Gold is stored in vaults without use, for the artificially inflated credit of power blocks, and various book-adjustments are made behind the back of the common man to whom the money really belongs.

World banks and world currencies exist already without the regular consent of the people of the world, and what is called a loan to one country from another is not really a loan, but a long-term commercial deal. It would not be impossible for the World Government to have its own credit and currency, valid the world over, and planned on some rational human basis, such as having one day's labour equal one day's food and shelter, with a working week of 30 or 40 hours or even less, in a world where competition has been counteracted by co-operation, and where labour-saving devices are employed for more humane conditions.

As we have already said, the most valuable single asset of the World Government is the world citizen. Since world citizens can be found by virtue of the rightness of the cause in any part of the world in unlimited numbers, the assets of all well-intending people anywhere in the world are already in effect those of the World Government. A revised, living and organic system of accounting and budgeting has to be devised. There being no duality of ends and means in this work, receipts and disbursements need not necessarily show large figures. After all, on final analysis, large-scale banking is nothing but book-keeping.

7
WORLD LAW
When we think of World Law, and of somebody who is able to conceive it on concrete lines, we are at once confronted with two rival aspects of the same question. A law is made to benefit a group of people; such a group of people, whether in a particular state or country or political unit, geographically understood or merely ideological in status, must consist of individuals. Each individual is likely to differ from other individuals in some detail or other at least. Temperaments and tastes have to tally with what each person receives or deserves to receive. One man's meat could be another man's poison. What a man needs may not be the same as what a woman needs, nor what a child might need. Thus, what is called the general good can never be the same as what is conceived as the good of each individual, or the good of all. One has necessarily to bring in the mathematical notion of the greatest common multiple or the least common measure when thinking of any one item that caters to the needs of a group treated as comprising individuals, or else as a general totality treated as one unit. To give a concrete example, a municipality might have 10,000 Rupees to be distributed generously. This amount might be spent in two ways: it could be used for giving a prize or

scholarship to the best student at school; or else it could be evenly distributed to buy books or slates for every student in the municipality. In the latter case, it is the good of all that is behind the motive for the benefit conferred. On the other hand, in the first case of helping the best student, it is through the satisfaction of the individual that the benefit is supposed to be conferred on all the students. Thus in formulating beneficial laws for any group, one could think in only one of these two alternative ways. But law has to be conceived primarily for the benefit of the general good, and it should harmonise within its scope the good of all secondarily.

Between these rival claims of the general and the individual there is a subtle dialectical formula which has always to be respected. This formula could be stated in the words, "One for All and All for One". We thus arrive at the famous formula on which Rousseau's Contrat Social is based, and on which the Swiss Confederation has been conceived. A socialistically- conceived law respects the same dialectical formula when it lays down the maxim, "From each according to his ability and to each according to his need."

Thus, the lawmaker can take his stand on the general good or on the good of all when he formulates his laws. Just as an umpire cannot be a player in the game, it is not possible for one and the same person to fulfil these two roles, which are necessarily dialectical counterparts. It is therefore that Rousseau says that the man who lays down the law should be "oceans removed" from the problems of the group itself, so that the general good and good of all might have a healthy interaction. What could be good for a small group might not be good for a big country, although the overall structure of both might conform to the same pattern. Good government or law is the resultant of an equilibrium established between what represents the good of all individuals in it, and what is conducive to the general good of the group taken as a whole.

THE GLOBAL STRUCTURAL PERSPECTIVE
Keeping this dialectical secret in one's mind, World Law must conform to an abstract structural pattern within which these two rival considerations can have a full and free scope for attaining a harmonious equilibrium, where individual interests cancel out against collective interests in every walk of life coming within the scope of government. Thus, World Government and World Law need not necessarily be thought of in terms of a world that is only geographically true. Whatever the extent of the population or government, the same structural pattern and the same dialectical counterparts are found to prevail within its total frame of reference. A World State has therefore to be conceived of first as a structural abstraction, while the functions of the state and its head - who is always a singular person - with all the other ramifications constituting the functions of a government, whether de jure or de facto, have to be thought of, as Rousseau has been able to do masterfully in his "Contrat Social". But Rousseau remains even to this day a much-misunderstood man. Let us therefore briefly turn our eyes elsewhere to see if this same dialectical approach is found acceptable to any other tradition or civilization. Here we are confronted with a surprising coincidence. In ancient Sanskrit literature, there are revealed norms and patterns of behaviour attributed to celebrated kings such as those of the Solar Dynasty descended from Manu, the first lawgiver. Kalidasa's "Raghuvamsa" is an epic of nineteen cantos, each of which depicts a king who conforms to this same dialectically-conceived and structurally balanced pattern of behaviour. Economics, ethics, aesthetics and education are all woven inextricably into this general political fabric in the works of Kalidasa. The King, who is a ruler of earth, is treated as a replica of Indra, the ruler of heaven and its denizens, the only difference being that of levels of value-systems, each having its centre in a scale of a vertical series of points. Politics and law are thus conceived of under the aegis of what is called an absolute pattern of principles as well as of behaviour. Any World Law has thus to be formulated with due respect for these relational aspects.

Besides the masterpiece on such a subject by Rousseau, it would be profitable for the modern student of World Law to

scrutinize in great detail the implications of a unified World Government as revealed in the writings of such great poets as Kalidasa, more especially as such matters are brought into relief successively with reference to the long line of model monarchs in whose praise the immortal epic "Raghuvamsa" itself been conceived. World Law is likely to receive a valuable original impetus when studied on the broad basis of a two-sided or dialectical interaction between the general good and the good of all, especially in India where holy tradition seems already to be in favour of such an approach. Rousseau's name, supplementing such a view from the Western World, would be sure to give it additional confirmation and support, even in the light of the most modern political theories. World Law thus becomes one that is unwritten, as well as being easily given to a common sense of justice in human relations. It is thus in this double perspective that we invite the attention of students to this all-important subject.

8
CONCLUSION

THE UNITIVE APPROACH
When it is said that wars begin in the minds of men, conversely it is already admitted by even full-fledged politicians that the solution to world problems is of a spiritual order. The doctrine of Dialectical Materialism, which puts necessity and hunger first, follows another line of approach. Both these approaches can be reconciled in a unitive approach to world problems as implied in the present memorandum.

Let us consider the armaments race, which is due to mistrust and fear of other nations. A serious proposal from the World Government is sure to have an almost magical effect in easing the tension of mistrust between nations.

The de-hypnotization of the mentality of mutual suspicion will save every nation, large or small, from the lop-sided provisions at present made in their budgets. Let world opinion merely support the idea of the World Government and a tangible relaxation will be felt at the poles in the personality of nations which breed mistrust; and even a theoretically respected authority can avoid the waste of billions of dollars for the world as a whole.

VARIOUS INCIDENTAL ITEMS
Let the World Government honour the farmer instead of vexing him with ever more items of taxation; let it start co-operative colonies to ease the tension of competitive life, such as those now working successfully in Israel, known as Kibbutzim, where there is no money exchanged at all; let it start fair-price shops, taking a percentage in the place of a tax, and so effectively eliminating the middleman, the black-marketeer and those who corner the necessities of life and make great and disproportionate profits at the expense of the common man; let it create clubs or pensions for persons obliged to pass their lives in eternal boredom, by means of colonies for the young, the old and the weak, which will give them natural outlets for expression and opportunities for light occupation without competition; let it confer titles or honours on people who render signal service to the needy and thus give them a legitimately-deserved chance to shine in the eyes of their fellow men. Such are some of the miscellaneous ways - too numerous to list completely - by which the World Government can justify its existence while it gathers momentum to be finally effective.

DECENTRALIZATION AND THE CANCELLING OUT OF PROBLEMS
Another method full of possibilities for the World Government is decentralisation, and the method of cancellation of the plus and minus of a given situation. For instance: capital is the cause of the sufferings of labour; large factories are responsible for slums; promiscuous religious charity is responsible for begging - these pairs that are interdependent could be cancelled out one against the other without punishment or reform coming from the centre. The head and the tail aspects can be cancelled-out dialectically without central interference. The World
Government can help in the ordering of such matters, taking into consideration the counterparts involved in each problem.

NEW STATES
There are many new states which require a new and fresh constitution. They could be guided by the World Government so that their new constitution would be framed in the spirit of World Government itself. This would prevent their disruption when world-mindedness in politics becomes a fully- accomplished fact.

THE NEED FOR SACRIFICE ON THE PART OF WORLD GOVERNMENT SPONSORS.
The sponsors of World Government have ever to keep before their minds that only through sacrifice and renunciation can such a noble idea be ushered into being. Human unity is an idea which is valid in theory at present. For people to adhere to the idea earnestly, they have to be sure that those who stand for it are not themselves lovers of power or grabbers of goods with unholy greed. Such a detachment should not be merely superficial, taking only the outward form of abstinence or even austerity.

Happiness in the contemplation of the self in its absolute sense, alone brings that blissful self-sufficiency which belongs to one who is able to be an exemplar of wisdom. This contented state of happiness is induced by knowledge of the science of the Absolute. A human being attains to his full stature as man when he is happy with himself, and thus in himself represents this high human value. Such an ideal is within the reach of every human being, without distinction of race, religion, nationality, sex, or even station in life. Even the humblest can walk in the way of the Absolute. A bad man who has taken the decision to regulate his life with reference to this final absolute norm of human life becomes by that mere decision equal in spiritual status to the greatest of wise men.

Thus, having referred finally to the fountain-source of wisdom from which one has to drink if one is to become a world citizen in the fullest sense of the term, we hereby commend this memorandum with all its imperfections to the attention of those generous spirits who are favourably disposed to examine it with sympathy and earnest understanding. Let those who are not of this category at least spare the sponsors of the memorandum their disadoption of it and consequent disparagement of its contents. Such is the prayer with which this document goes out to lovers of Wisdom and of Humanity.

PART II
ONE-WORLD ECONOMICS

INTRODUCTION

Economics deals with wealth as a value in life. Political economics as talked about in our times, whatever it might really be in itself, is confined to such subjects as would tend to make a chancellor of the exchequer act more intelligently than he might have done had he not studied them. The subject of economics has been laughed at by most serious thinkers, and been dubbed a 'dismal science'. It is based on a chronic desire in man to become richer and richer. In this sense economics is not a science at all, but reflects the diseased condition of an individual who thinks of the wealth of nations, or of one nation, from the egocentric standpoint of self-aggrandisement.
The conflict involved in economics is paradoxical: one is to love one's neighbour as oneself, but at the same time Britannia must rule the waves.

Between such rival positions, economics textbooks range in endless variety, wherein so-called wise people indulge themselves in notions such as those of supply and demand, production and distribution, or communication, transport and exchange. The token-value of a coin should not be mixed up with its precious metallic content, and an unintelligent change in the proportion of silver added to minted coins in a state can make all the coins

disappear from the country in the twinkling of an eye. Such are some of the dangers that economics textbooks warn the Chancellor of the Exchequer about.

The spiralling of prices, increases of rent-value, pressures of population, the efficacy of tariff walls - unjust and immoral in themselves, in which crag-barons rob bag-barons, as Ruskin would put it - give us an endless variety of textbook subjects as taught in colleges and universities of the present-day all over the world. One hears of a possible explosion of population, and the control of displaced persons to keep them from seeking livelihoods beyond national frontiers. Liberty is flaunted at every step of what passes for good economics.

VAGUE THEORIES AND QUESTIONABLE PRACTICES
Subjects like inflation are as vague in the minds of economists as in the most ancient days, when economics was not taught in schools as a science, as it is at present. We are told that it is good to have a high standard of life in a country, while at the same time there are economic experts who ascribe the spiralling of prices to too much planning. Quantities of edible products are known to be buried, burned or thrown into the sea so that the height of prices could be maintained, without respect for the hunger of people who might be starving.

Every market-woman knows that supply and demand have to balance each other, but the relation between production and exchange is still a mysterious factor. One hears of countries like England going off the gold standard at a given moment - when it is their turn to pay their debts - while they themselves respected it at the time that the standard was favourable to them. Whether this is honest dealing has been questioned by eminent authorities, irrespective of the side they took in economics.

There is recognition of such factors as sterile and fecund wealth; as also of the possibility of 'creating credit' to help nations in special kinds of economic distress, who could be allowed time to recover by long-term credit adjustments arranged by financial magnates who meet in secret to have questionable dealings.

A bank can function with only one-tenth of its capital inside its coffers and carry on ten times the volume of business without anyone knowing whether the assets are really in the vault or not. It is the "Big Ten" - whether in Wall Street, Lombard Street, La Bourse, or in Bonn or Tokyo - who decide the fate of other people's money without their consent, and without telling them what they are doing in their names.

Insurance companies gain enormous profit by maintaining account-books in big buildings like the Empire State Building. Their article of trade is the natural fear or anxiety among the generality of their clients whom they exploit on the basis of their gullibility, promising security from fire or fear, etc. 'World Banks' seem to lend money to help borrowers, while actually being primarily interested in promoting their own exports. The dumping of condemned goods from 'advanced' to 'backward' countries contains a snag to which only now are people like Chavan (the then Finance Minister of India, ED) opening their eyes. 'Hard' and 'soft' currencies are differentiated without justice in respect of the membership fees of so-called World Banks. Scarcity economics has created an impasse which has climaxed into what is now understood as a joke under the name of Parkinsonianism. "Maintain the price line"; "don't let the dollar wobble"; "keep the pound steady" - these are slogans referring to economic malaises which come to evidence in various countries, the remedies for which are equally vague and have to be guessed at from the graphs of such bodies as the Chase Manhattan Bank, whose experts know everything.

The 'iron law of necessity' regulates the relationship between labour and capital, but there is a more complicated surplus-value theory which has come into the picture of economics and for the clarification of which one has to read Engels' "Anti-Dühring", where he discovers the subtle relationship between production and exchange - more difficult to understand than the graphs of infinitesimal calculus - where parameters cut curves marking ups and downs in the economic progress or regression of a given country.

Lastly, nobody speaks of a World Economics at all. There is no textbook of World Economics, though economics as a science - if it really is a science - should necessarily be most directly concerned with the happiness of humanity as a whole. Instead, economists visualize a world consisting of differently-coloured Hitlerish patches of territory, from within which each man is thinking hard economically so as to defeat his neighbour. Such is this dismal or sombre science, which is not a science at all.

STATISTICS AND SCARCITY ECONOMICS
The greatest prop of this science is statistics, about which Mark Twain said that there are three kinds of lies: lies, damned lies and statistics. Statistics can prove anything, and one can easily rob a neighbouring country by using high finance based on false statistics. Statistics about population are the worst of all. They say that God protects his creation, but there are at present international agencies which kill human progeny before they are even born. All textbooks declare that the Malthusian theory of population is an exploded one, but castration of men and women based on the most garish of inducements rudely violates and circumvents the law of the individual, in a manner that could only be described in mild terms as questionable.

Opulence and abundance are not distinguished sufficiently clearly. Creating scarcity can raise the standard of life; but living in plenty is said to be a backward condition, only because such backward countries do not buy transistor radios or refrigerators, and because the women take care of their wealth by keeping some gold ornaments in their boxes. Why they are wrong is not clear to any intelligent man.

Combines and monopolies are a menace to those who have no shares in such concerns, and at whose expense they become rich. A 'limited liability company', which is respected in the eyes of the law, amounts to pooling the funds of several capitalists so that the power of the bag could weigh more heavily on the poor people who are not able to pool their resources in the same way. Ruskin stated this truth most pithily in his "Crown of Wild Olives", when he said, "bags and crags have the same effect on rags."

The same applies to politics when economic blocs are formed between countries, and 'common markets' instituted so that their bargaining power against others could be strengthened. Paper money is not always supported by tangible wealth within the vaults of big banks. Even world currencies are being floated by big companies, cutting across the currencies of nations in circulation - the moral justification of which is still to be clarified. Indefinite credit can be created by financial experts meeting together now and then, giving them enormous power over the inarticulate masses who are always the sufferers at the hands of the more clever ones in the world. Paper currency cannot be eaten instead of rice or wheat, and its value has to reflect those aspects of wealth which are not just paper but which touch human well-being more directly and actually. The great discrepancy between the two spells grave disasters underneath the visible level - no power is trying to balance them, and no textbook tells us how to make the correspondence between them more compatible, just, or even barely honest.

All economists cry themselves hoarse against unemployment. The present writer is unemployed, but has never been sorry for it all his life. Economists sometimes create problems which really do not exist, or at best exist only in their imagination, propped up by that master lie called statistics.

LAISSEZ-FAIRE
In short, what we wish to point out is that whatever measure an economic authority might consider applying to a situation in a country, whether advanced or backward, mercantilist or agriculturalist, in an opulencist or abundancist context; whether standards there are high or low; where demand and supply are not balanced, and where inequality is the prevailing given datum in whatever branch of economics - it would be better to leave affairs well alone to let them find a natural balance between the rival prevailing forces. 'Do not control population, lest the balance of nature should be disturbed'. This is a dictum which has been proved with rabbits in Australia.

The lopping of a tree makes that part of the tree proliferate all the more. Shaving too often only increases the growth of beard. Such subtle factors have all to be taken into consideration before a complete theory of economics could be developed, more especially, as we have said, in respect of the one world of tomorrow.

The laissez-faire policy of Bentham must have been suggested by such a line of thought; but who takes it seriously? Planning, on the other hand, and even over-planning, is the order of the day, in spite of such ideas as Parkinsonianism becoming equally credible side by side with it. One might ask, what is the remedy? The answer is simple, but will surely not receive the approbation of professional economists, because it would imply indirectly that they should put themselves out of commission.

AN ABSOLUTIST APPROACH REQUIRED
Relativistic theories of economic happiness must give place to an economics based on norms and constants derived from an absolutist standpoint. Slogans like "Liberty, Equality Fraternity", "The greatest good of the greatest number", "laissez-faire", "equality of opportunity for all" and all the varieties of socialistic dicta such as "dictatorship of the proletariat", "classless society", etc., have all of them the needle pointing in the same direction - towards the need for a normalized form of economic theory based on first principles, rather than one which serves as a basis for further fanning into flames rivalries that lurk within the relativistic set-up, however good they might be by utilitarian standards. Lukewarm economics favours the fecund proliferation of injustices which keep creeping up from its hotbed. Such an economics can create more problems than it can solve.

VOICES IN THE WILDERNESS
We have to turn away from formulating further economic theories in which relativism is allowed to vitiate our approach, even at its very inception. There are no textbooks at present which seem to fulfil this requirement, except in the voices of

protest against modern economics raised by such lovers of humanity as Plato, Rousseau, Tolstoy, Ruskin, Carlyle, Quesnay, Compte, St. Simon, Gandhi, Thoreau, Emerson and others. These voices are hardly audible above the clamour contained in other literature, and they are put into the shade by not being taken sufficiently seriously. We have, therefore, to turn our eyes elsewhere for any consolation in such an important question which intimately touches the happiness of humanity.

If we look over the utopian pictures that have been painted in various books describing a perfect state of economy prevailing in any country - which stand self-condemned by the very meaning of the term 'Utopia' as applied to them - we have only a very thin and negligible quantity of literature left which could be said to describe a normal viewpoint. It is that part of economic theory which stems out of the totality of values in the world that can relate the subject correctly to that very zone of general happiness from which alone an axiologically-based subject could derive its origin.There are starting postulates and premises for every precise science.

Literature often tries to portray perfect conditions to serve as a model or basis for further discussions on the subject. It was because such a model was needed that Gandhi often alluded to "Ramarajya" (the rule of Rama, or God) for expressing his own special ideas. One could substitute this term with another equally good, which we could call "Dharmarajya" (the rule of Dharma), which would however have a Buddhistic flavour of Asoka's time. Constantine's empire and the days of Akbar and of Asoka have left impressions recorded in literature, with economic theories directly or indirectly stated in them. Mahabali and Dilipa were also just rulers in whom absolutist standards of ethics, economics and aesthetics were supposed to have prevailed. Their stories continue to inspire generations of humanity, even to the present day. Although in their approach to value-judgements, economics is treated together with other subjects as being only one among many of them, it is not impossible to derive the purest of guiding principles from such writings. There is the whole of Kalidasa's "Raghuvamsa", which affords us ample ground for searching for normative

guidelines in formulating a new theory of economics in the absence of any at present, as we have said, which could be called normalized at all.

CANDIDE
Before recommending that we should turn our eyes to the wisdom of the 'Golden Period' of Indian history for gleaning guidelines on this subject, which might itself be said to be a product of Western civilization, we have to establish sufficiently clearly that economics in the West has proved itself to be a complete failure so far. It might be suspected that such a sweeping statement could be due to some old-fashioned mode of thinking not at all acceptable to the ways of the Age of Enlightenment, of which men of the twentieth century are unquestionably proud. How could backward countries even think of criticising advanced countries to say that they are wrong?

In such a predicament, one has the unstinting support of a writer and thinker of unquestionable status, who could himself be said to be one of the representatives and forerunners of what we call the Age of Enlightenment. Between him and Rousseau, we have two great names in the history of modern thought who could be said to be the harbingers of modernism itself, leaving behind the mentality belonging to the so-called Middle Ages. One has only to mention "Candide" to modern enthusiasts of Western economy with their contempt for anything old or oriental to see how the very name itself succeeds in turning the tables against their stand. "Have you read 'Candide'?" is all that needs to be said to see the retroactive effect on the face of an enthusiast of the economics of the West. Opulencist economics, mercantilism, the 'Gold Rush', the South Sea bubble that burst, and the adventurous search for Eldorado or the Golden Fleece are all satirised in this classic by Voltaire.

51

THE NORMATIVE FRAME OF REFERENCE IN KALIDASA
Indian scholars did not compartmentalize disciplines unnecessarily. Thus, valuable theories of ethics, aesthetics and economics find unitive treatment in the vast body of classical Sanskrit literature - particularly in the works of Kalidasa, the uncrowned king among poets of the Indian soil. Vikramaditya's empire must, as scholars think, have been a model of economic success. The theories which contributed to such a success must have influenced Kalidasa's own theories. There are many precious passages from which the groundwork of economic theorisation itself could be collected. Even the verses of the "Kumarasambhava", when carefully examined, reveal their own economic theory, studied at a point where all human values stem out of the context of the atman or self. Man is the measure of all things, and the proper study of mankind is man. One must first know oneself, and be true to oneself, and one cannot then be wrong. The normative reference for wisdom was seen to be located and rooted in self-knowledge, and was fully, schematically and structurally analyzed by the Upanishadic seers, conforming to a fully scientific and sound methodology, epistemology and axiology. It is true that Sanskrit literature is clothed in the cryptic ideograms and favourite clichés of its own peculiar "lingua mystica". This does not detract, however, from the fundamental postulates and sound starting premises of the economics envisaged therein. It has to be treated as a study in itself, before its contributions could be analyzed and enumerated so as to reveal their great value in acting as a corrective to modern economic theorisation.

10
GOLD IN WISDOM'S LANGUAGE
Gold is the God of the world of finance. It occupies a central position among things that men, and women more especially, wish to possess and keep. The value of all other things is determined mostly with gold as the norm or standard. Although it is a thing, when related to man it has more of a perceptual status than that of a mere outside object. Its utility is often a theoretical and negligible factor. It is by the intimacy that gold is able to establish with human beings in a personal sense that it gets its value. It thus reflects a state of mind of which the businessman knows how to take advantage. If we should toss a gold dollar and handle it we are struck by its weight and its sound quality, revealing its superlative materiality. In addition, it has a dull gleam resembling the subdued brilliance of some of the distinct stars. Of the earth most earthy, it has yet about it something celestial. Its radiance embellishes the glory of the sceptre or the crown of kings, and the spires of temple towers shine with its lustre. It is thus more than a mere piece of inert matter, and this must be the reason why the "Tarka Sastra" (the Indian science of categories, relations of things, analogies, etc.) brings it under the category of "tejas" (fire, light) rather than under that of earth. It is thus lifted hypostatically and glorified

in the philosophical thought of India. Its mysterious role in human affairs, dating from antiquity to the present-day, seems only to justify this status.

IN MATTER-OF-FACT LANGUAGE
When gold is yet in its raw or natural setting in the womb of the earth, it is hardly more than a virtuality or a potentiality. Once brought to the surface after good luck in prospecting, speculative investment and many man-hours of labour, it might be made into ornaments or plates to stagnate in the form of treasures or relics. Its main role is to pamper vanity. Through gold the newly rich and more ancient nobles get the ostentatious satisfaction of shining in contrast to the ragged poor around them. These 'bag-barons', as Ruskin would call them, like the 'crag-barons', as the same writer nicknames them - who were not other than highway robbers hiding in places of vantage against unwary travellers - had the same effect on 'rags', who were the poor. Thus he developed the famous aphorism: "Bags and crags have the same effect on rags".

When gold does circulate from hand to hand, it happens more often secretly, sluggishly, or slyly avoiding the public gaze. It takes the form of a gratification, a personal consideration or a mark of favour. Even at times of inflation, which is a form of modern economic malaise, gold's value is not affected much, and gold is not scattered about in the same way as paper currency. There is a steady dignity in its 'buoyancy' or 'shyness' in the money market.

THE DRAGON OF FINANCE
When once outside the personal or domestic context, gold has an elusive way of hiding in safes or vaults. In national capitals like Moscow, Paris, London or Washington, the gold exists more by supposition in the form of credit, which can be abstract or concrete or both. Even there it is an elusive presence. Mutually protected against rival officers, who may themselves represent business or government interests or both, it has a way, as has been

reported recently, of being just 'found missing'. Later, when nobody is the wiser, book adjustments can set matters right, and neither business nor government are visibly worse off for it. Regeneration and recovery apply to money as well as to life or health. Whether the actual gold is in a mine or buried somewhere by a miser, or still in the forty acres of London's Banking District - it makes no perceptual difference to the actual individual human, whose meal reaches his mouth by the resultant interaction of multifarious life-factors and circumstances both man-made and natural.

Credit can be created at the head-end of the dragon of finance while the debit is a virtuality residing at the dragon's tail where gold-prospecting might be in progress. Irrespective of the amount of gold, and in spite of more and more being dug up, human life in its most vitally necessary aspects goes flowing on the same as ever. Gold makes itself evident through the newspapers now and then as a customs' haul, as a contraband article in the most unforeseen places, or as a treasure-trove unearthed thousands of miles away from its origin thousands of years later - making men ashamed or proud under varying circumstances. Gold-infatuation also comes now and then into evidence in human affairs as a fecund cause of culpable homicide.

THE NORMATIVE PRINCIPLE OF POSSESSION
We read in "Don Bell Reports" the following interesting commentary:

"Throughout the Babylonian Empire, temples were built to worship false gods. Within the temples were strong-rooms presided over by priests (later to be called bankers). The priests exhorted the people to bring their gold and other precious items to the strong-rooms for safekeeping. Customers were handed little clay tablets as receipts (paper not yet being invented). The people paid interest to the priests (20%) for guarding their gold. And since it was inconvenient 'to go to the bank' for every transaction involving the use of gold, clay tablets began circulating

as a 'medium of exchange'. The clay tablets were backed by gold supposedly deposited in the local Fort Knox. So nobody questioned the use of clay tablets instead of gold. But the priests of the strong-room made a startling and history-shaking discovery. People seldom called for their stored gold. Less than ten per cent of the gold was ever called for in a single day. Therefore, clay tablets representing ten times the amount of the gold on hand could be issued, and no one but the bankers themselves would ever be the wiser. The banker could loan out ten times the value of the actual deposits and remain solvent. So instead of making twenty cents on each dollar in hand he could issue credit money and make ten times twenty cents on each dollar in hand - or make two dollars profit for each dollar actually deposited in the bank."(1)

Gold thus enters into human life as finance. The possessive instinct of human beings and the advantage of one dealing with the possessions of many by proxy, as it were, in a thing like gold, is at the basis of this kind of financial relationship which works to the mutual advantage of both borrower and lender. 'Interest' and 'discount', which vary only in the time of actual use of value, makes for the thriving of banks. The modern bank rate may be more just and better founded, but the reference of finance to gold and the constant chance of ten per cent in favour of the banker are features that have not changed and cannot. The 'inverted pyramid' of the credit system thus becomes erected, with which the common man who cashes a cheque or buys a meal is unconcerned, or which he ignores.

WORLD CREDIT SYSTEM'S NEED OF A GOLDEN RULE
Nimrod, who founded the city of Babel at the dawn of history, is said to have started to use gold as a norm in state affairs. Nebuchadnezzar, fifteen hundred years later, established the gold standard publicly. Although Britain went off the gold

standard as early as 1931, it holds on to gold as tenaciously as in days of antiquity, for the sake of regulating its international commitments through the Bank of International Settlements at Basle, Switzerland, or the 'World Bank'. The Governors of the Federal Reserve Bank of America or of the Bank of England are the architects of what is called 'sound finance' for their respective areas, or for world finance generally, which might be in the interests both of governments and of business at once.

There are lurking contradictions at the core of financial policies which are of a secret dialectical order wherever the interests of one comes into relation with the interests of the many - whether at the social, national or international level. The laws which might hold good in regulating the 'Credit of Nations' will not hold good the same way in dealing with 'One-World Economies', which transcends national interests. Private or limited liability-finance is thus different from public unlimited liability-finance, which makes all the difference to the justice or validity of the transactions. Without any unitive wisdom-principle being consciously introduced here, chaos in world credit is bound to prevail. A golden rule based on the virtues of integrity, trustworthiness, parsimony in the interests of one and all, and the just use of the power of credit, is involved here - a rule which has still to be properly formulated.

SPIRITUALITY AND GOLD-VALUE
Saints or spiritually-inclined men have generally despised gold (with wine and women) as filthy lucre. The worship of false gods or Mammon is also associated with the worship of the golden calf in Mediterranean religious history. Even a coin placed under the bed of Sri Ramakrishna of Bengal is said to have shocked him in a strange way; and it is written of him also, maybe rather imaginatively, that he used to throw lumps of gold and mud into the river Ganges to prove to himself and others the truth of the dictum, otherwise familiar to many Indians, that the man of wisdom considers a lump of clay, a pebble and a piece of gold with the same equanimity of mental attitude (Gita, VI.8). A saint generally

wishes to live outside the world of high finance. The plain living and the parsimonious economical virtue that they generally cultivate for the emulation of their immediate followers, makes them consciously or instinctively recognize the truth of the saying of the American philosopher Thoreau, "superfluous wealth can buy superfluities only. Money is not required to buy one necessary of the soul." (Walden, Conclusion)

The Guru Narayana was once offered some natural flowers with a few gold ones thrown among them, by way of a pious birthday offering by a rich devotee who thought of surprising him and pleasing him by such a gift. The Guru picked a flower made of gold and, smelling it, remarked disappointedly that it had no scent. This was a gentle way of teaching the difference between the real value represented by a fresh blossom and the false value implied in the gold of the rich man. On another occasion, on the contrary, the Guru was known to have himself presented a gold coin to a disciple who was starting on a long voyage. He had questioned the same disciple already about his attitude to money and, on his telling the Guru that it was superfluity for a spiritual person, had remarked also that it was natural for one to keep money and use it, if only for purchasing a railway ticket.

Pastoral communities that might survive in mountain seclusion - as in Nagaland, where salt still takes the place of gold - may be supposed to live in a more or less self-sufficient economy of their own, in which currency in our sense may not hold good. Money, like everything else, is right in its proper place, when used with proper human intelligence or wisdom. Economists like Adam Smith have also voted on the side of saints when they wrote such words as these:

"A rich country, in the same manner as a rich man, is supposed to be abounding in money; and to heap up gold and silver in any country is supposed to be the readiest way to enrich it …Among the Tartars as among all other nations of shepherds who are generally ignorant of the use of money, cattle are the instruments of commerce and the measure of value. Wealth therefore according to them consisted of cattle, as

according to the Spaniards it consisted of gold and silver. Of the two, the Tartar notion was the nearest to the truth." (2)

WISDOM FROM MYTH AND FABLE
Much wisdom about gold is enshrined in mythology, fables and parables. The gold disc that is said to hide the face of truth is mentioned in the Isa Upanishad. It refers to the false relativistic value which can hinder the vision of the absolute value behind it. The Hiranya-Garbha (gold-germ), which represents the supreme value of the Vedic hedonistic context, is the ontological and hierophantic counterpart of the disc of gold hypostatically referred to above. Between them they may be said to touch the two poles of value in the world of gold.
The golden ladder of Jacob's dream in the Bible (Gen. 28. 12), which touches heaven and earth and where angels with wings, who are supposed to be wiser and holier than ordinary men, go up and down, refers to the same two aspects of values, as in the Gita (XV. 2) where branches of the great fig tree turn upwards and also downwards.

The language of myth is not meant to be realistic or logical. Myths are to be understood with the help of intuitive imagination which can enter into the spirit of the situation, something which even the shrewdest of financiers are not usually capable of doing in any thoroughgoing sense. In the Indian legend, Prahlada suffered because he would not worship Hiranya (gold personified). There is also the famous fable of king Midas, the object of which is to bring out the difference between gold to be possessed as a thing and the gold that is a mere symbol of possession. The boon of the golden touch became a curse because of the "adhyasa" or false attribution of reality to the wrong aspect of gold in the mind of the king. Normal human relations with his own daughter were thereby frustrated. It is the distinction between the real fatted calf and the golden calf set up for worship which annoyed Moses.

This confusion between the perceptual and the actual object is a fecund cause of error, by which even very worldly-wise financiers can make grave mistakes in calculations which concern the everyday happiness of millions of human beings who come under their money-power. False and true credits are hard to distinguish except through the highest kind of dialectical wisdom.

Even such wisdom is not for its own sake, but for the real happiness of mankind, which is the resultant of the correct dialectical treatment of human values which refer to the good of all and the general good at once.

THE TWO WORLDS OF GOLD
The Midas-mystery of gold is what economists recognize as Gresham's Law, by which it becomes important to balance the exchange- and utility-values of coins put into the open market. The slightest tilt in favour of the utility side of value in a coin can make it disappear from view altogether into the unknown domain of financial virtuality. Thus possessions can belong to two mutually exclusive worlds of value which, when wrongly handled, can spell double gain or double loss to the persons concerned. When carefully studied between the lines, the parables of the Bible reveal this subtle reciprocity between the two worlds, placed between which the 'certain rich man' of the various parables touching gold or coin teaches this wisdom in the name of Christ. Whether dealing with the wages for the workers of the rich man's vineyard; with the good and faithful servant who used gold rightly; or with the prodigal son who was dead to one world of economics in favour of another, and was found again by a parsimonious father who fêted his return to the first world of economics; or with the rich man who was the rival of Lazarus who suffered in the 'other world', while the latter suffered only in the world here - we have rare dialectical wisdom-secrets involving property values recorded for human guidance. To this day however, humanity remains deaf to such wisdom-teaching.

LACK OF WISDOM ABOUT GOLD IN ECONOMIC STATISTICS
Modern economic investigation has fallen back on the normative method of statistical studies in arriving at laws, rules and controls to be applied to gold and economic policies. Here, however, the great drawback is that economics has not yet been brought properly under a normative science. The picture of a wealthy or prosperous state or individual, which should be the norm in economic thought, has not been clearly stated. The two worlds of wealth and gold - one of which aims at abundance, while the other has mere opulence as its ideal - have not been treated with any correct methodology. While parables and fables guided older generations in these matters, modern man relies on statistics which have no better status in reliability.

That statistics prove nothing, and that if they do prove anything at all, could prove either the 'pro' or 'con' side of a proposition indifferently, has become a modern joke. F.H. Le Guardia, as early as 1933 observed: "Statistics are like alienists - they will testify for either side". (Liberty, May 1933). Then there is the famous pleasantry about statistics attributed to Disraeli by Mark Twain, which says. "There are three kinds of lies: lies, damned lies, and statistics". Even if these sweeping statements are not to be taken seriously, we have in the official publication of the Chase Manhattan Bank of New York, perhaps one of the biggest financial houses of America, the following on "Economic Statistics" with the subtitle "Economic Pulse-Takers Need Better Information":

"Mark Twain, having listened to widely varying estimates of the length of the Mississippi River, once marvelled "at the fascination of a science where one gets such wholesale returns of conjecture out of such trifling investment of fact"

... only a quarter of a century ago, the same could be said of economics. The subject dealt heavily in abstraction and was short on actual facts against which to check the theories.

Economists often disagreed because they had no accurate measurements.

"Economists have devised new and better methods for measuring the trends of our economy. As a result the Federal Government today spends about $40 million a year on compiling economic statistics. (3)"

It is not clear to the layman of common sense who scrutinises the above paragraphs, whether facts or statistics are given primacy to prove what is vaguely referred to as "trends of our economy". Textbooks on economics openly declare that there is no agreed explanation as to the cause of fluctuations, and that five theories have been put forward up to 1940, namely:
(1) the Over-Production Theory,
(2) the Under-Consumption Theory,
(3) the Monetary Theory,
(4) the Psychological Theory, and
(5) the Climatic Theory (4)

Whether more statistics will tend to prove the validity of any one of these theories, or help to make more theories instead, is not certain. The same statistics may be used to prove the sides of both the parties concerned in a controversy.

The proper use of statistics in such matters is itself to be questioned, because many generalisations based on statistics, like those of Malthus, have signally failed. Thus proof, the fact which is to be proved and the theory on which actual data are to be collected and interpreted, leave room for so much vagueness and conjecture that the common man stands confused in regard to the correct way of applying economy to his own personal life. Men have to be clear first about what they want before theorising or proving.

THE BEST USE OF GOLD
The fraction of gold implied in a penny is a principle that we recognize through dialectical reasoning, as when we say that the value of the gold dollar inheres in the cent and vice-versa.
The unit copper coin of any country, like the bad penny that turns up again and again in everyday human affairs, has only a negligible practical value in human terms.

Gold thus enters human life more as a figure of speech than as an actuality and, when it does enter mentally in this manner, it has two distinct aspects. One of these is usually that of Mammon, and the other that of God's kingdom. The gold of the nib of a fountain pen or in its cap is valuable only to the extent that something sensible is written with it. Again, we are called upon to distinguish likewise between what is to be rendered as a tribute to Caesar and what is due to God. The worship of the golden calf also refers to some wrong attitude to gold which ancient writings have condemned. Gold, representing true or false value, has entered into wisdom-literature in various ways and forms of rhetoric. Eternal values are compared to the phoenix, which burns itself at the altar to be reborn at once with its golden plumes. The fatted calf may be contrasted with the golden calf, which latter is associated with Mammon- worship which is the same as what Washington Irving called "the almighty dollar, that great object of universal devotion".
High finance is known to be a gamble in which the loss of both cash and credit makes speculators jump out of the skyscraper window. To see through the contradictions involved requires high common sense or rare wisdom. The virtue of the Golden Mean recommended by King Cleobulos of Rhodes and developed later by Aristotle really implies a man with gold or goodness in his heart. Economists recommend frugality of a certain kind, which can be tilted in favour of stinginess on the one side or prodigality on the other.

A golden rule or line may be imagined also to separate the world of abundance from the world of opulence. The most important matter for one to make up his mind about is whether he wants one or the other of these, because as a rule they are mutually exclusive by their very nature. Rousseau, in his famous essay "On the Government of Poland", presents two types of states to choose from. One he describes with the following epithets: "noisy, brilliant, redoubtable, influential over other nations"; and the other he describes as "free, peaceful, wise, fearless of anyone, self-sufficient and happy". Then he gives us the unequivocal warning against trying to combine the two in any single state.

He writes,

"Above all do not try to combine these two projects: they are too contradictory; and wanting to be related to both by a composite way of progression is to want to miss both."(5)

GOLD AND GOODNESS INTERCHANGEABLE
Between the language of myth, fable or parable and the graphs or pictorial representations of economic trends or situations found in modern magazines or books, whereby the common man is called upon to wade his way through such concepts as 'surplus-value', 'the trade cycle', 'economic equilibrium', 'sound finance', 'stable exchange', 'conditions in the foreign market', 'currency restrictions', 'the creation of credit', and 'the inverted pyramid of credit', in order to live his life in the light of common sense or wisdom, a more direct and simple way has to be found at the present stage of man's education or progress.

Of the three schools in economic theory, distinguished as the classical, the neo-classical and the dialectical, the last-mentioned has at present succeeded in catching the imagination of the masses in many countries. Meanwhile great controversy and polemics rage on such questions as the theory of rent-value, interest, capital, and even on the initial definition of wealth. National wealth and international wealth have not yet been clearly distinguished. Every university professor who writes a textbook on this highly abstract subject starts with a different intellectual formation, nurtured on academic soils, which differ widely from country to country, and as between the Old World and the New. Each develops a set of anecdotes or examples in his mind for the use of teaching and, as between Adam Smith, Karl Marx or Marshall, the variety of rival theorisation is so great that one has to cry halt and begin to think for oneself with the help of common sense and general information.

The first dictum we can arrive at immediately is that economics is for man and not man for economics. If it yields general satisfaction and works in experience, it must be acceptable, and if it reaches out vainly from one theory to another, it has to be discarded.

As a science it is not an 'experimental' one - no experiments are needed here, as common experience contains the elements of experiment. If it is to be treated as a 'normative' science rather than as an experimental one, the norm of human happiness has first to be fixed in terms of economics. As neither of these seems to be the case at present, we make bold to adopt a method where intuitive imagination is brought in to help us to see more clearly what economists are talking about.

A SIMPLE ECONOMIC SITUATION
Here the time-honoured wisdom-language is being admitted by the front door only to save us from the confusion of tongues in which we find ourselves at present. It will be seen that this unitive way of approach is the same as what has been called the dialectical approach: not in the limited sense of post-Hegelian dialectics, but rather in the sense of what is known as perennial wisdom the world over. It has ever had an apodictic quality which humanity has always recognized, whether in the Chinese, Indian or pre-Socratic context. With gold as a symbol of wealth and as a central notion of value, we shall now try to focus our attention on a simplified economic situation in order to see the subtle aspects which have contributed to make gold a mystery. A simple question may be asked by the layman as to why gold should not be left in mines if it is only brought out to be reserved in the banking areas of the great capitals, buried again in vaults as an elusive presence. Could not hoarded gold elsewhere be treated as at least equally respectable and justified?

Let us then enter intuitively and freely into a simple economic situation which will serve as a pattern for the understanding of other value-factors involved in economics, both in its static and dynamic aspects. Closed and open economic situations may also be distinguished with the help of this simplified pattern of everyday life in our minds.

An absent-minded professor of economics goes for a walk in the countryside and comes to a crossing of roads fringing on a forest reserve, where a monkey happens to live. On the diagonally opposite corner of the crossroads is a vendor of bananas and peanuts exposing his wares for sale. The professor, being a frugal and kind-hearted man, living alone and apart from the busy world of getting and spending, just happens to have an old coin of small change in his pocket. Seeing the monkey eyeing the nuts hungrily, he wishes to make the best of the situation by offering his coin to the vendor to induce him to give a handful of nuts to the hungry monkey.

Before accepting it, the vendor examines the coin. He hesitates at first because that coinage was one officially withdrawn from circulation but, having been minted when gold reserves covered credit better; it thus has a price-value which is to his advantage, in spite of its low exchange-value and null face-value. He therefore gives the nuts to the monkey, and the professor returns to his room as a satisfied representative of the human race.
The various aspects of gold-value involved here can be schematically represented in the diagram on p. 67.

CONCLUSION
Here the abstract, regulating, economic norm or principle of gold-value is the central notion to be kept in mind. We can readily distinguish four aspects of gold-value, which meet at the central point where values change over or interact in a subtle dialectical manner. The vertical axis represents transactions where time is the primary consideration. Interest and discount rates, which are always balanced in any country, operate along this vertical axis. The horizontal axis would represent actual exchange as between price and commodity. These take place in the present but have the two sides of actuality or virtuality involved. The price-value of a banana is virtual, while the banana, as an actual product of labour, is an actuality which is more specific and presents a more contingent verity. Need is hidden in the man, like hunger in the monkey, and is a virtual instinctive disposition from which man suffers in the

STRUCTURE P. 67

present or the eternal present. The price we pay for getting rid of hunger, which itself is a necessary suffering, is negative as compared with the positive pleasure which money or gold might command. Thus price-value meets commodity-value from opposite sides in this situation. The horizontal world of events, things, movements or activities has to be distinguished from paper transactions through bankers, which belong to a world of tokens or symbols. Here again, credit and debit, interest and discount interact to make business thrive. The banker has to be trustworthy and stable. The bank manager has to be parsimonious and have certain virtues, such as not being too easily carried away by outside events. He has to be just and keep to the golden mean of value without being involved in false lending or borrowing. He must have credit vis-à-vis other bankers, and clearing houses must honour his cheques, and to that end his accounting and bookkeeping must be on sound lines. Above all he must have an address, in his official capacity at least. The gold reserve somewhere in a vault is the nominal or actual credit for all bankers in a given area. This thin golden line of credit-value may be said to go past human affairs as a vital line of life in which the kind man has to play his role in the name of the happiness of humanity as a whole.

Reputation, goodwill, kindness, integrity, stability and sound credit are all involved here. They are qualities whose fund man must increase by all means for his happiness. It is thus important for man to have a heart of gold. To revert to our example: we have to remember above all that there are distinct sectors which represent economic compartments or worlds which cannot interact directly. There is no use in having the monkey borrow the bad penny from the professor. The vendor has behind him the plantation and the labourers, while the monkey has behind it at best living regions of fruits and leaves. The mercantile nation and he pastoral nation cannot thus be correctly related except through a very wise arrangement of economic interdependence. And finally, it is important to see how money must circulate if it is to serve life at all. Hoarded gold might increase the wages of mining labour, as Professor Jevons

says, but it would not be playing its legitimate role in human affairs, because as we have said, money is meant for man and not man for money. Similarly, the burning of food-products for the sake of better prices, as we hear of sometimes, is an absurdity of wrong economics. The contrast between opulence and abundance is also a matter for the imagination of man to visualize as belonging to one or other of the sectors represented in our diagram. As Rousseau points out, it would be unfair to ask a poor hard-working peasant to pay his tribute of tax or rent to the moneylender or to the government in the form of money, which does not belong to his economic sector or world at all. The farmer belongs to the world of abundant actual produce, while the moneylender belongs to the opposite world where wealth is merely a symbolic token. Increase of tokens may not agree with the produce in hand, and might produce economic crises which experts are still explaining. Caesar's domain and that of God should not be mixed up.

NOTES

1. "Dan Bell Reports" (Florida, USA, Aug. 10, 1956).

2. P. 324, "The Wealth of Nations".

3. Manhattan Bank of New York, Official Reports, No. 10 of 1956.

4. Cf. pp. 276-82, Silverman: "The Substance of Economics", London.

5. Translated from "Le Contrat Social", p. 384, Edition Garnier, Paris.

11
TOWARDS A ONE-WORLD ECONOMICS
Economics is a modern substitute for religion. While religion holds out promises for the hereafter, economics refers to the betterment of life here. Both can have questionable enthusiasts as leaders or blind believers in outmoded ideologies. The mass-mind can be swayed in the name of the one or the other into holding exaggerated or distorted notions against the general good and the good of all. Economic creeds can be as fanatical as religious ones, and claim as great a toll of human life in times of trouble. Both can join hands with politics and work havoc among peaceful inhabitants. Whether it is doomsday or perfect equality of opportunity, at times simplified pictures of felicity or suffering hold the imagination of either ideologist to fill him with much misplaced fervour. Between the ends and means visualized in either of these groups of believers who insist on having nothing to do with each other, the visible common event that takes place is that somehow what is in one man's pocket is transferred into another's without the usual commodities being exchanged. One who writes a book on the best method to abolish poverty best proves his case by himself becoming rich at the expense of his admirers.

72
In the name of being saved from sin or suffering, the same phenomenon can be seen in the camp of orthodox religion. While the transfer is taking place there might intervene much vague talk which lacks the apodictic precision that distinguishes either science or common sense. Both religion and economics thrive in the twilight atmosphere of a pseudo-science. Vain verbosity prevails in the name of both at present.

THE NATURE OF ECONOMICS
Economics is common sense claiming to be science. It involves Value-Wisdom. It deals with wealth and aims at welfare, starting from scarcity, poverty or want as its basic assumption. This assumption is not unlike the assumption of sin or suffering in the catechisms of religions. Scarcity of good or goods is to be overcome by dealings or arrangements involving long-term or short-term measures, from simple ones, as when ants store grain against winter, to international monetary adjustments.

It calls for certain types of virtues such as parsimony, abstention or shrewdness for intelligent getting and spending, which should not err on the side of being either penny-wise or pound-foolish. It is in the midst of a modern state that economic wisdom sits with grace, and the sum-total of its contrivances, whether conducive to wealth, welfare or both, is vaguely called 'good economics'. Success or failure is not measurable except by measuring-rods whose validity is itself questionable. Raising standards of living need not tally with the degree of satisfaction of a people. Between maximum, minimum and optimum standards, calculations can vary or go wrong. From the family budget to the national one, the special sagacity or wisdom called for in the heads of families or states is a very elusive one based on varied schools of theorisation. It has now become common to read strong and impassioned condemnation of one school of economics by another rival school. Respectable writers of one group are humbugs for others and vice-versa, making economists themselves wonder if the claim of a scientific status for their subject is not mere wishful thinking. Universal elements in economics are sadly lacking at present.

THE PREVAILING FRAGMENTARY, CLOSED OR STATIC APPROACH
Adam Smith's "Wealth of Nations" by its very title reveals one of the chief drawbacks of the so-called science of economics. He did not dare to write a book on a science of Wealth or even of Value, but carefully limited himself to "An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations". The nations that he had in mind were surely those that resembled England, where the Chancellor of the Exchequer, sitting on his woolsack in London, exercised his economic wisdom in favour of his country in just the same way as those in Rotterdam or the Hague decided on wise economic policies to bring gold into their own treasuries. John Stuart Mill, who was employed by the East India Company, wrote the next standard work, in which he was honest enough to avow that political economy was a subject bound to be in favour of aggrandising itself. Jevons pinned on the word 'utility' to fix the nature of wealth, and theories of value have been put forward by others which involve almost metaphysical notions of the reality of what is called wealth, value or goods. At present it is not the fashion any more to define economics or wealth. It is even stated that "Political Economy is said to have strangled itself with definitions" (Keynes). "Meeting man's physical needs" is the aim of economics stated in its most scientific form in some modern articles, and it is becoming the fashion to say that there is no need to define economics at all. It is not hard to see from all these that the central notion of economics is not a normative notion. It is not conceived in universal or unitive terms. Each writer has his own closed, static or fragmentary notion of what constitutes the core of economics as a branch of knowledge. How could a science emerge without the basic notion being clearly defined?

THE SCOPE AND LIMITS OF ECONOMICS
Exchangeable value-factors interest the economist rather than non-exchangeable ones, although they may hold a high place as a personal value. Father and mother are not precious, to the extent that they are not values of the market place. When we think of such subjects we transcend the limits of conventional economics. A rare painting for which a rich man might be willing to pay a high price touches another limit in the world of economics. A film star carries his or her value in their person, only indirectly contractible and treatable as an economic factor. Edible fruit in the thick of a forest is not an economic product, although it might satisfy human or animal hunger. Natural resources such as springs or watersheds are factors contributing to economic immaturity rather than signs of economic assets, because from the 'home-market' point of view they are only negative economic factors. Capital and wealth are poles apart according to the textbook notions of economics on which generations of modern experts are nourished. Maturity and backwardness in economics are myths that have developed in the days of the gold rush, mercantilism and colonialism, which are fast becoming outmoded. Before a normal one-world economics can come into full view, many of the old lessons will have to be forgotten. What is more, trusted advisers of the old school are likely to conceal attitudes which deserve to be suspected rather than respected in the new set-up. Charlatanism can be hidden under the cloak of economic advice. Countries once under colonialist economists will find it not so easy to unlearn what they have imbibed from their old exploiters who might still pretend to be their advisers in the interest of states which have changed their self-interest from one side to the other.

A discerning eye can discover many anomalies in the matter of economic policies. The London School of Economics still has its disciples seated in key positions in India and in the far-flung dominions of the Empire that once flourished to their profit, still safeguarding the same interests of the 'home market' which is no more at home. Scarcity-based economics, with its emphasis laid on exchangeable goods and built on the notion of capital, has many elements which are pernicious in their effect on human happiness, and is closed, static and curtailed in its applicability and its power to spell general happiness, or even the happiness of all. What concerns us more at present is that these do not represent the whole or even a good part of scientific economics.

It is high time that one-world economics shed its limitations and expand into its proper proportions. Scarcity economics has its natural counterpart in the economy of abundance. Before we can visualize the implications of these two mutually-exclusive worlds in economics we have to focus our attention on possible worlds of value.

POSSIBLE WORLDS OF VALUE
When men have in their minds different goals as most desirable for themselves or their fellow beings and visualize corresponding means for accomplishing them, they may be said to live in different worlds of their own. Just as purgatories and paradises can be piled in graded fashion one above the other in a vast possible series, the world of economics can present a series of value-worlds.

"Utopia" and "The Republic" were ideal worlds painted with political as well as economic factors. In England itself we have had mercantilist adventurers side-by-side with highly humanitarian authors like Ruskin and Carlyle, whose economic worlds were different. When Ruskin was once asked by the London Association of Architects for some suggestions, he outlined for them the statue of what he called the "Britannia of the Market Place" as a goddess that would correspond to the world of money and selling in which they lived.

Carlyle was no less vehement and protested strongly against the economic trends of his times. Even now the London School of Economics represents a body of economic thought which pertains to a world of its own. If conservatism dies hard in actual politics, its ideological shadow in the world of economics persists longer still, and works through believers who continue through generations lisping the same jargon as their predecessors; and public schools and colleges continue this pattern of thought when actual conditions belong to another world altogether.

Through Adam Smith, Mill, Ricardo, Marshall and Marx we have graded worlds of possible values, within whose four walls and with whose frames of reference they outlined their economic theories. Their worlds can all be visualized as ranging from scarcity at one end of the scale of values, higher and higher into the world of gilt-edged notions of wealth or capital.
Pure credit as an abstract value is now emerging as an internationally acceptable economic factor, and in the name of scarcity or abstinence, economics at present includes measures of large-scale castration of healthy men and women so that some optimum equilibrium of population, long discarded by regular thinkers, can be attained. The human touch is now leaving economic thinking altogether, and we do not know if respectable-looking economic advisers are not wolves in sheep's clothing. The contemplative background of economics has long been left behind. The possible worlds in which an honest economist hides himself range from the cell of a hermit to that in which the economist is becoming more and more suspect as dangerous to public life.

FROM THE GOLD RUSH TO DAS KAPITAL
Gold and capital are overlapping values. Credit is another economic term that is becoming more and more used. When credit is not covered by gold reserves it attains the status of a pure abstraction in the world of values, and when this point of recognition of credit is attained, the concept of credit begins to resemble that of God in theology. Economics started with the wisdom of the woolsack of the Chancellor of the Exchequer in London, and has ended at present in the surplus- and labour-value theories conceived by Marx in his "Das Kapital". An impartial thinker brought up far away from the home markets of Amsterdam, Rotterdam or the Hague, and free from prejudices of gilt-edged notions of value, will find that, when we begin to forget the one-sidedness that has been recognized in respect of values all through, from the woolsack economists to "Das Kapital" of Marx, we are at the same time called upon to think of economics with an altogether revised frame of reference, with a differently-conceived set of four walls within the limits of which economic life is to live and move if it is to make sense.

Opulence is not the only point of view from which economics can be envisaged. Opulence is only the visible portion of the iceberg of what has to be recognized as the total situation on which a unitive, global and scientific theory of economics has to be based. While one-eyed or lame economics progress lop-sidedly, a healthy economics has to progress normally on both the aspects of abundance and opulence. Scarcity economics implies capital, but the economics of abundance adds another new world to the whole matter. Economics must comprise both its natural counterparts of what refers to gold and to its negative aspect.

THE NON-MERCANTILIST NOTION OF WEALTH
Gold in relation to the scarcity of marketable goods has a meaning that is quite different from gold in the context of abundance. The relation between the external shining thing called gold and its different aspects, virtual and actual, deserves special examination. Economics as a science of values must recognize that virtual and actual gold can be considered economic values by any philosophically-minded economist. We read in Plato's "Republic" the following interesting passage:

"They (the Guardians) must be told that they have no need for mortal or material gold and silver, because they have in their hearts the heavenly gold and silver given them by the gods as a permanent possession, and it would be wicked to pollute the heavenly gold in their possession by mixing it with earthly, for theirs is without impurity, while that in currency among men is a common source of wickedness."(1)

Gold as a value in economics is a notion far more complicated than at first sight might appear. If one should object and say that Platonic notions do not apply to modern economics, we would turn to Marshall, whose name commands respect among those who have put order into economic principles.

He emphasised both the sides that go into making economics a wholesale science when he said:

"Economics on one side is a study of wealth; and on the other, the more important side, a part of the study of man."(2)

Even before Marshall thus reluctantly, as it were, admitted that economics was for man as much as man for economics, many honest Englishmen had recorded their protest against the tendency for economics to lose its human element. Chapman referred to two possible aspects of wealth when he said: "External goods are goods only in relation to internal goods." Ruskin unequivocally declared:

"There is no wealth but life: life including all its powers of love, of joy and of admiration. That country is the richest which nourishes the greatest number of noble and happy human beings."(3)

If all these statements are not to be treated as merely poetic or philosophical effusions, how is it to be explained that the professional or official economist still thinks of wealth in terms of money? This question could best be answered in the words of a modern textbook-writer who says:

"Wealth is studied simply and solely because in this world of ours, wealth is the only convenient measure of the intensity of human motives. Other motives like love, friendship, family affection, charity, etc. also exert their influence, but the fact is that the steadiest and strongest motive behind economic activity is the desire to get 'money income'". (4)

Even with money as a measure, Moore further admitted:

"There is no convenient yardstick by which to measure the currents of business affairs, for these are subject to gusts of fear or perhaps fantastic optimism as unpredictable as earthquakes."

Money-mindedness or mammon-worship is thus, by such admissions, a charge from which economists even of the present-day cannot claim full absolution.

IT IS TIME TO LAMENT FOR ECONOMICS
If, by the admission of economists themselves, economics remains still money-dominated in its attitude to problems, and ignores non-mercantilist values in life, it will be admitted that the time to lament for economics has come. In fact, economics has in our day become patently recognizable as a kind of die-hard religion to which, like a drowning man. the man who once began to speak its language wilfully clings, while fully aware that his arguments hold water no more. We have heard about economics - besides its being charged with mammon-worship and often suspected of charlatanism, over and above the standing charge that is a "dismal science" - that the claim of this branch of knowledge to be included among sciences has been questioned.

August Compte could not include it among the positive sciences. Its aspirations in this direction have been described by some eminent economic authority as a form of wish-fulfilment. Wooten in his book, "Lament for Economics", puts, as it were, the grave-stone on this economics that we are asked to lament for:

"Whenever six economists are gathered there are seven opinions…Economists are under the suspicion of being charlatans and they cannot afford to arrogate honourable titles to themselves...in the increasingly common application of theoretical economists of the term "science" to their studies, there is an element of wish-fulfilment...the zealous student of economic science would do well from time to time to remind himself that, of all the demand and supply schedules, cost curves and difference curves that give so formidable appearance to his textbooks, not one (unless by accident) is founded upon fact. The reader would search far and wide through the works of analytical economists before he came upon a single prediction endorsed by the weight of authoritative opinion of the course of events to be anticipated in any concrete historical situation." (5)

When even Dr. J.N. Keynes deplores that "Political Economy is said to have strangled itself with definitions", it would be permissible for the layman to lament officially the death of old-time economics. Textbooks now begin by apologising for not being able to give a definition of the subject, and even if they try to do so, make the definition so banal and insipid that it tells us almost nothing. The "Columbia Cyclopaedia" contents itself with the following: "Economics deals with supplying man's physical needs."

THE MECHANISTIC APPROACH TO THE VITAL PROBLEM
Travelling in trains or returning from the West in ships, as the present writer has had occasion to do, one of the most distressing sights that he has been exposed to has been meeting young men and women who are still living in ideologies that have long been outmoded or dead, especially in what pertains to economic matters. Many off-hand statements are made by those who have had training in schools of economic thought. They talk of poverty in India as if Indians themselves were responsible for it and not their age-long exploiters from outside. They would then speak of over-population as if Malthusian theories of population were still valid. A statement like "there is hardly standing space in India for the present population", is taken for granted by most of them. But if one happens to travel with any one of them in a Trunk Express from Madras to Delhi, for days and nights one sees, passing outside the windows for thousands of miles, vacant lands which are fit for cultivation, as evidenced by similar bits already cultivated.

They are more ready to believe literally the mechanistically- conceived mercantilist economists than what they can verify with their own eyes. If you happen to speak of family planning, the same mechanistic attitude may be seen to colour their arguments to the point of childishness. They will state, as if it were very evident, that when there are too many members in a certain family they will begin to starve, and if one mentions that birds migrate to places favourable to life, such a biological verity too is unthought-of in the domain of mechanistically-conceived economics that their teachers might have spoken to them about.

When speaking of over-population they often forget that maximum population and minimum population, mathematically understood, have between them what is called an optimum population which the very textbooks mention. The optimum has to be determined, not by any mechanistic thumb-rule, but depending on the economic unit that is the basis of study. Rural and urban units differ and standards of living have very variable factors entering into their makeup. The luxury of one generation can become the necessity of another, and units in society are not static specimens to be studied in a museum, megascopically or microscopically. They have to be examined in situ in their living setting. Standards of living measured in terms of money must make allowance for many factors of incertitude. High prices might raise the figure without raising the amenities of life involved. Engels' Law that enters into regulating the standard of living is often overlooked by second-hand economists. The tendencies of the market place are changeful with every gust of wind in market conditions and it is next to impossible to visualize any rigid standard of life as prevailing. What appears as a favourable figure from the opulence side of economics might in reality be just the opposite, judged from the abundance side of the same economics, when viewed in the perspective of a full-fledged science. The whole question is vitiated by what might be called the mechanistic approach, which is a kind of religion of the modern man.

Anything that comes within the scope of a brass instrument passes as civilised, and there are still among us disciples of Western pragmatists and behaviourists who are directly descended from the days of Cortez and Clive, who put on the airs of Sir Oracles, and who talk down to the common man or woman with a superior air. Ancient civilisations and their wisdom of the ages do not count any more. Economics has become, in short, the enemy of the best in an ancient heritage like that of India; yet it is a pity that India's own best sons, who wish to see their country free from the shackles of colonialism, still live in ignorance of the evils of wrong economics as mechanistically conceived by Western fortune-hunters of old. Let us therefore lament for the old economics and try to rethink this whole subject from a new and global standpoint.

II
The tradition in economic thinking that has been handed down to our times, having its origin and basis in the mercantilist adventures of early colonialists, and conceived as it was in the interests of the woolsack Chancellors of the Exchequer or their counterparts in the West, has to be given a decent burial before even the outlines of a one-world economics can clearly emerge to view. Economics has to get rid of the inhuman and immoral background in which it had its origin. Even in the days when mercantilist economics was in full swing in Elizabethan England and in Europe generally, there were heard some honest voices who protested against the inhuman and immoral aspects of self-aggrandising principles tacitly taken for granted by its partisans and theoreticians. The members of the French School of Economics, who may be said to be the founders of modern economic theory, could not make themselves heard over the clamour for gold and capital which was the main incentive with the majority.

The Physiocrats* of France had many fundamental principles to enunciate which indirectly influenced the author of "The Wealth of Nations". The thoroughgoing statements of the Physiocrats were watered down by Adam Smith and comprised in an economic theory which still retained its closed and static character as against the fully free and human attitude implied in the position of the Physiocrats. Adam Smith's book became a sort of Bible for the English and those others who thought in terms of a home market as against that of the colonies, for making select nations in the North of Europe wealthy at the expense of the 'underdeveloped' - whatever this term applied to far-flung dominions might strictly mean.

* Followers of Quesnay, a Frenchman who, in the 18th century founded a system of political and economic doctrines based on the supremacy of natural order.

The immoral and inhuman elements that vitiated the origins of European economic thought were connived at or condoned in the name of a practical economic shrewdness which did not lay much stress on morality or just human relations between man and man. Thus it is that we find their disciples, who have been produced generation after generation, still tutoring the administrators of those dominions which have now become nominally independent, except in the matter of that other ideological domination which in effect is worse than physical servitude.

The same pernicious habits of thought that go against the interests of the larger humanity involved in economics are lurking here, and there are canker blossoms within secret brain trusts, and academic advisers who are still behind the policy-makers and planners for larger countries. When, as we have seen in the first section, the very nature of economics as a science applicable to all men anywhere is questionable, it is not hard to imagine the dangers to which the people of the world are exposed by advisers who are already inside their countries, or visit them from time to time under the respectable front of guides or guardians of good economics. In these days, when cartels exist on an international scale and trust busting is in vogue, such a suspicion would be seen to be only normal.

THE LACK OF A YARDSTICK FOR ECONOMIC MEASUREMENT
A science is sometimes described as something that depends on precise measurements. There is always a unit of measurement in all branches of the exact sciences. If we now ask the economist what his unit of measurement is, he will say he is obliged to fall back on money as the measure of wealth because wealth as a pure welfare-value does not lend itself to measurement.

We have already seen textbook economists bewailing this lack and openly suggesting that money itself could be used as the yardstick for economic measurements. We know too well that both the token- and the exchange-values of money are not firm enough to be used as a measuring rod in economics. The measuring rod has to conform to some sort of stable norm before it can measure another factor subject to many forms of fluctuation or variation.

If it could be otherwise, each piece of cloth could be measured by another piece of its own kind, instead of by a yardstick which has a standard or normalized prototype determined absolutely by outside considerations, independent of the object to be measured and itself free from change.

Writers on economics themselves have been frank enough to admit that a money-standard of measurement is adopted by them because there is no other substitute available. Prof. Dewett, whom we have already cited on this point, openly admits:

"There is no convenient yardstick by which to measure the currents of business affairs, for these are subject to gusts of fear or perhaps fantastic optimism as unpredictable as earthquakes." (13)

A measurement in terms of money is wholly untenable when the measuring unit itself is subject to various fluctuations. Economists speak of comparative standards of living in countries such as India or England, in spite of the fact that they involve so many uncertainties and fluctuating factors. Yet it is surprising that we read of raising the standard of life, whose effect is not directly visible or measurable and which is not unlike trying to read writing on water. When even decent men take such matters seriously, we cannot but help thinking that, as in religion, there are certain favourite notions which otherwise intelligent minds cling to and which persist as superstitions that die very hard. The myth-making instinct in man finds consolation in such. Economics vainly claims to be a normative science, and one of its greatest drawbacks is that it lacks a yardstick or even a central normative notion altogether. This can be pointed at as the one single defect of the subject taken as a whole.

VALUE, WEALTH AND MONEY
From the token-value of a coin gone into disuse, to credit that can be created by bankers or states, we have a whole series of notions of wealth, value or money which have confounded economists for generations.

Exchange-value and utility-value, besides marginal value, exist as defined in textbooks. Price can fluctuate but it is said that "there cannot be a general rise of values although there can be a general rise of prices." Rent is another of the notions of value which has subtle theorisation implied in it, and clouds of subtle theorisation on the part of authors have added to the vagueness of the notion. Whether interest is moral or usury fair is still an open question.

There is then the famous "labour theory of value" which has involved writers in polemical duels and battles in recent years. The surplus-value theory is one of the masterpieces of theorisation about value that have come down to our times. All these values must refer to some sort of good or goods that have relation to the happiness of man. Then there are inner and outer values.

Economics must be for man at least as much as man is for economics. When economics becomes more important than man, it ends in absurdities. Economics divorced from ethics is becoming more and more absurd in our days. The latest of such absurdities is when people think that future progeny must be eliminated for the economic welfare of mankind. No other species of animal would be so ultra-intelligent as to think of its own extermination. Value, wealth and money in relation to human welfare is a matter still only vaguely understood.

THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF MAN
Economics will recognize the value of goods of all kinds from frogs to monkeys, when they are marketable and have a money value. In the days of the slave trade, human beings were bought and sold and were goods of the market place. As soon as this was declared immoral by public opinion and the equality of all men became recognized, there began to prevail the opposite tendency to consider man, except for forced labour, as a superfluity. A monkey cannot read or post a letter, but a human child can run very intelligent errands.

Why should such a difference be of no value in human life? When too much fish is caught and people cannot eat all of it, they use it as manure; but when it comes to the value of the human body or the living human being, the same intelligence seems frustrated and driven into abnormal and absurd directions An intelligent boy can run away from home, as Clive or Robinson Crusoe are said to have done. Man is capable of many exploits and adventures that few animals are capable of, and finding food and shelter for him is not a problem. As long as there is any vacant space left on the surface of the earth it would be nonsense to think of exterminating populations, potential or actual. Even to think in these terms must normally be repugnant to a sensitive human mind with its natural interest in its own kind.

Although every textbook of economics now devotes a paragraph at least to how the calculations of Malthus have been proved false, there are men and women who claim to be intelligent and who put on the superior air of civilised persons who think they know more than God could ever know, and make statements about over-population which have long since been rejected and thrown overboard.

Science has now come to a stage in which even sex-determination mechanisms in biology are vaguely understood, but it could not with impunity dare to interfere mechanistically with what nature orders with its own balance and justice. The consequences of tampering with the balance of nature is known to biologists in the domain of rabbits in Australia, and with other animals both favourable and nuisable to man. Society and governments even tolerate methods that are suspect - not to speak of the motives that are actually involved - in this question of what is respectably labelled 'family planning'. What passes for persuasion can often hide subtle subjugation, against the will of individuals in the special circumstances that prevail in interior localities with innocent villagers. Those who cannot create human life must not think of taking it.

Although the days of slavery in physical chains are over, there are questionable methods of propaganda and persuasion which, judged by their large-scale adverse effects, are more detrimental to man.

The Eichman trial revealed that the castration of women had been practised by Hitler to exterminate the Jews, whom he did not like as a community. When it concerns foreign foundations* of a different civilization who have once spoken of the dangers of the yellow or the black perils which multiply fast, why should it be over-suspicious to think that rival interests in the matter of population control can be operative? A child that may be white, brown, black or yellow is a precious masterpiece of nature or God's creation. Anyone who has watched the growth of intelligence in a human child cannot help considering it as the dearest of goods. Slaves in chains in the market place could be angels instead of mere cannon fodder as moderns might tend to treat them. The omission to recognize the value of man, and to give him his legitimate central place in the world of economics, is the sin of the present mechanistic age of technocracy. It is high time that contemplatives of the world joined with the voices of those fathers of modern economic thought in England and in France - men like Carlyle and Ruskin and the well-known Physiocrats, such as Quesnay, Turgot and others, who have been hitherto mentioned with mixed approval - to raise a protest in the mind of the average man against this degradation of the value of man in the prevailing picture of economic progress.

MAN IS THE VERITABLE MEASURING ROD
From the time of Plato we have heard of men having, "in their hearts the heavenly gold and silver given to them by the gods". In the light of such a view of the value of man himself, is it hard to accept that economics must be as much for man as man is for economics? There are modern writers who belong to the mechanistic and technocratic age who still recognize at least two kinds of goods, those within and those without, which together spell human welfare or happiness which is the very purpose of economy. Ethics and economics have, in our days, become so divorced that at present they spoil the case of both, instead of enhancing the teaching of each other. This is a tragic state of affairs and it is a shame that some economics books go so far in the name of matter-of-fact modernity in market-place economics, as bare-facedly and blatantly to assert that economics has nothing to do with ethics.

* Editorial Note: the author, in this and other passages, is referring to the programmes of mass sterilisation, funded by the Rockefeller Foundation and others, when illiterate peasants where coerced, threatened or forced to undergo sterilisation, often in ignorance of what was being done to them, and often dying as a result.

Even culture and art would be outside its scope, according to such uncivilized writers, who are still steeped in the idea of the search for the Golden Fleece. The normative notion around which every science needs to build its theorisation or practice, is naturally the happy human being himself, and there is no need to seek all over the warehouse for a yardstick for economics which, as we have seen, has ended up in the setting up of money-standards for measuring wealth. Man is the greatest of values and the best of goods available for man. The proper study of mankind, whether in philosophy or science, is man, and he is, as the ancient dictum puts it most pointedly, the measure of all things, even in economics. No man, no economics! Adam Smith was influenced by the continental Physiocrats of Europe in his own time. With Ruskin, Carlyle and Emerson we had, even among the colonialists and mercantilists of that age of adventure and expansion, honest men who thought right in economic matters. Their voices have been stifled by the louder clamour for moneybags, and it was Ruskin who put the whole protest in poignant and pithy terms when he declared: "Bags and crags have the same effect on rags". Clothed in figurative language, it is not hard to expand his words fully and state that capital, as represented by moneybags, has an adverse effect on the interests of the poor, who are referred to as rags. Capital gives to the man of bags the same unfair advantage as a highway robber who sits on the crags, which stand for points of vantage from which unwary innocent passers-by could be attacked. This pithy slogan contains all of the lesson that we have once again to learn in bringing proper one-world or globally human economics to prevail for civilising human life once more after the abolition of slavery. The whole of economic thinking in recent centuries has been sadly vitiated by one dominating factor, symbolized by the bags referred to by Ruskin above.

The bag represents some kind of undue advantage taken against the common fellow man who is willing to be in rags or to work for wages as a slave. The subtle upward sucking power of money in the form of credit in banks and in the form of capital has first to be clearly visualized in economic theory, and in this matter much credit must go to Karl Marx who, in his two formidable volumes called "Das Kapital", has put his finger on just that single factor which has been the bane of true economic prosperity ever since the days of the gold rush.

THE LIMITS OF FREE ENTERPRISE
In recent years, especially in the economic life of the more 'mature' areas like America and Europe, the dangerous extent to which moneybags or capital could go in the direction of what is known as free enterprise, has come into evidence with a bang, as it were. Cartels and questionable trusts exist which have required states to enact 'trust-busting' laws, without which the large-scale mergers of big companies would make them so powerful as to dictate terms indirectly to Government purchasers themselves, on such a scale that laws are now being dramatically enforced against hitherto rich and respectable businessmen drawing salaries up to $125,000 a year, and directors of important concerns. Some of these have been put under guard in handcuffs. A peep behind the curtains of such a development could be got from the following extracts taken from Time Magazine:

"What merger-minded U.S. bankers regard as malicious harassment continued to be the Department of Justice policy last week. Unfettered by the refusal of a Federal court a fortnight ago to bar absorption of Chicago's City National Bank and Trust Co. by the Continental Illinois National Bank, Attorney General Robert Kennedy's trustbusters raced into New York in an attempt to block the merger of the Hanover Bank (assets $2 billion) and the Manufacturers Trust Co. (assets $37 billion)." (7)

The background on which the above news item would become more understandable is made clear by the following extracts from an earlier report entitled "The Great Conspiracy" in the same magazine:

"In a tense and packed Philadelphia courtroom last week, a drama took place that U.S. business will long remember to its shame. The case before him, said Federal District Judge J. Ollen Ganey, were 'a shocking indictment of a vast section of our economy'. They were more than that. They showed clearly that the executives of a mighty industry, publicly devoted to the concept of competition, had privately conspired to rig prices to the detriment of their customers on a scale so vast that it embraced everything from the Tennessee Valley Authority to the private utilities that supply the nation's light and power." (8)

Later in the report we read:

"What aroused Judge Ganey's indignation was not only the conspiracy but also the efforts of almost everyone involved to justify his misdeeds as part of a prevailing business morality. "What is really at stake here", said the judge, "is the survival of the kind of economy under which America has grown to greatness, the free enterprise system".

The conflict involved between the offenders and justice comes into clearer perspective as we read the following continuation of the same report:

"F.F. Lock, president and general sales manager of Milwaukee's Allen Bradley Co., who was slapped with a $ 7,500 fine and whose company was fined $ 40,000, maintained that 'no-one attending the (business) gatherings was so stupid he didn't know they were in violation of the law.' Then he added in a surprising non sequitur: 'But it is the only way business can run. It is free enterprise.'"

Free enterprise thus has come to mean the opposite in the mouths of the judge and the hitherto-respectable businessman. Capital, competition and free enterprise have thus arrived at a blind alley in our own days.

THE DOUBLE REFERENCE OF ECONOMIC MAN
Although it is not in fashion to think of "economic man" as an abstraction, as the modern economist now relies more on the cobweb charts of equilibrium analysis, of which he is beginning to be even more proud because of its factual emptiness and the lack of effective predictability in economic trends; we revert to the ideal economic man here, not in terms of man as a self-seeking monster of the moneybag epoch in economic history, but in order that man may yield the central normative notion for this branch of knowledge which has been wishfully rather than legitimately laying claim to a place among the regular sciences.
Man can be a monster and a menace to mankind itself, or he can be a beneficial human as created by Nature. The power of the moneybag often distorts his personality with its pride, and greed makes him tamper with the beauty of nature, spoiling the surface of the green planet on which man is destined to seek his happiness.

Money or capital is only one aspect of the double reference that applies to the economic man at one and the same time. Opulence and abundance have to find a healthy equilibrium in the normative notion of the economic man conceived in generalized abstraction. Through Protagoras and Socrates down to the time of the writing of Pope's "Essay on Man", this need for a norm of thought has been sufficiently recognized in wisdom-literature the world over. Between natural abundance and moneybag opulence man must find a middle way of good economic living.

ECONOMIC MAN AT THE CROSSROADS
Economics resides as a double-sided virtue in the golden heart of the man placed in this two-sided economic environment. Like two immiscible liquids in the same bottle, there are two polarised, ambivalent factors involved which rarely live together in the same man.

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The miser and the man of natural generosity do not live together. In this virtue it is that economics can participate in its value-content with aesthetics and ethics. The exchange of values - whether horizontal, as between prices and goods, or vertical between plus and minus sides of abstract value - takes place according to certain fundamental given laws in the normative world of economics, which tallies with economic man on one side and with his proper economic environment on the other. It is true that such a theoretical picture is becoming outmoded because in pragmatic terms it has not yielded practical guidance for the policy-makers of recent years. In spite of this fact, of which we are fully conscious, it must be stated that any economics that mixes up the polarities involved is worse than no economics at all. We should divide the "haves" and the "have-nots" so that economic programmes for the advantage of one or the other, or for regaining equilibrium in times of crisis or economic malaise, could have some intelligible meaning at least. Instead of giving up methods developed so far in this direction and abandoning the normative idea of the economic man, we here suggest that we should make a fresh and revised effort, from a global background this time, instead of in a partial fashion as hitherto. The two polarised worlds of abundance and opulence have to find equal place in this new normative scheme of economic life.

PRIVATE AND PUBLIC HAPPINESS
There are certain aspects of wealth and consequent happiness that we cannot share or exchange. The father's love for a son, or a husband's for a wife, refer to vertical happiness of this order, and the use of a good public road or bridge belongs to another order. A millionaire, who might be living with a wife who has filed a suit against him and is not on speaking terms, can feel his state of unhappiness more keenly than a happily-wedded poor peasant and his wife, who might be living in a hovel and half-starved, but endowed with love.

There are some common-sense banalities that need not be repeated if it is not to show that one-sided welfare economic programmes have lurking factors of uncertainty, which experts often miss, that might be hiding in the very heart of the problem. The planners in offices who sit with statistics and calculations, predicting varied good or bad results of large- scale measures, often do so looking at life quantitatively and mechanistically, which can be as absurd as the superstitions of the age of witch-hunts and sorcery. Between the Scylla and Charybdis of this situation, a laissez-faire and laissez-passer economy would be safer than trusting to the wrong experts who might turn out to be charlatans. There is ample room for suspicion and the clash of interests in the modern world.
On the very day I am writing this article we have the tragic news of the death of the secretary-general of the United Nations, an event which has economic and colonialist implications, as strong and as barbarous as in any bygone days, still alive in the world and manifesting themselves in the broad daylight of modern public opinion, which prides itself on being progressive.

THE UNCERTAINTY IN ECONOMICS
When Shylock says in the last scene of "The Merchant of Venice" that taking away his property would amount to killing him, he is speaking the language of dialectical wisdom, by which a man and his property are related in bipolar verticality as a private or personal means of happiness and freedom, which are matters that are guaranteed by every free constitution all over the world. To seek one's own happiness freely would mean nothing other than the liberty to have happiness according to one's own private individual notions, whether right or wrong by public standards.

There are two worlds - of freedom and of happiness - involved here, which cross the paths of one another, contradicting, compromising, or counteracting the ways and means of one by the ways and means of the other. The human values involved can be frustrated and foiled for a man or for mankind generally when mistakes are made involving violations of dialectical verities.

Paradoxes present themselves in almost every question concerning happiness and the conflicting means to be adopted, making life a network-tangle of criss-cross problems. These are the domains where fools walk nonchalantly and where angels fear to tread. The whole matter of economics has to be viewed in the light of a revised dialectical point of view in which private and public interests now yielding negative results would on the contrary give double gain. One-World Economics must head in this direction if it is not to flounder altogether and get lost.

FACTORS OF MALAISE AND DISEQUILIBRIUM
Economics is a four-cornered game in which we lose or gain or suffer disequilibrium or maladjustments in various ways that are subtle and gross. Time enters into this as well as quality. Credit, debit, supply and demand mark the four aspects of the game; and when it is played the ball goes from one side to the other, horizontally or vertically, within the limits of a mathematically-conceived vectorial space where various stresses and pressures act and interact. The periods of deflation and inflation that come into evidence now and then within economic areas, limited or general, affecting large and small groups of people at a time, or the whole of humanity when general hard times prevail, have various factors that enter into their composition, which are as unpredictable as the wind that bloweth where it listeth.

In accepted language the four corners of the game are known to be land, capital, the labourer, and the entrepreneur - but these factors are to be understood as more generic and symbolic than specific or literally fixed in meaning. They are only symbols in a larger mathematically- extrapolated or elaborated abstract economic world involving higher or lower, greater or lesser values as they touch human life in particular or in general.
We come to face here the mystery of economics as a whole, in which the virtues of the economic man come up against the whole of the economic situation, possible, actual or intentional, in any place at any time. This is the theoretical picture tacitly kept in the mind of economic theoreticians while lesser spirits only play their own game of checkers with one or other aspect of this global picture-board in their minds.

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A world of abundance often forms one side of the court, and the world of opulence interacts with it with movements and manoeuvres which comprise the expert game which has always been going on. In spite of all these contrivances, human problems are only on the increase, both in number, scale of extent, complexity and intensity. To separate in our minds the two main factors involved, so that we could at least see the sides to which the players or pieces belong in such a game, is that first desideratum without which economic insight would forever remain a closed mystery.

The economic man, who within his heart carries that double-sided streak of golden virtue which makes for the good economics of any one generation in this human world of getting and spending, falls broadly into two distinct types.

One is represented by the peasant who tills the soil and the other is represented by the man who multiplies his money by lending interest. Although the latter practice has been condemned by the Quran and the Bible as disreputable, these two types have existed from time immemorial and are likely to exist hereafter. Any picture of the prevailing economic climate in which humans are likely to eke out their livelihood must count on the world of the peasant and that of the usurer, who belong to two rival worlds and carry their own virtues in their hearts. A generous usurer and a peasant miser are possible but rare. These two, peasant and usurer, represent respectively the worlds of abundance and of opulence. Only intuitive insight can open the doors to these respective worlds, and in order at least to have a rough idea of their import, it is necessary here to lapse into a kind of biblical pictorial language.

THE WORLD OF ABUNDANCE
What lies spread before the natural man with all its varied intentional, possible or actual opportunities for a happy life, of birth, living, and multiplication of kind, with the food and shelter that it implies, is the Garden of Eden of the Bible.

A spring on fertile ground situated on the higher level of a gentle slope is not at once an economic wealth; but in the course of natural living by a normal human family unit, translates itself into wealth by slow, imperceptible degrees, by a progression subtler than the arithmetical or geometric one. Perhaps the law of squares holds good here and a logarithmic spiral might mark the ascent of this apparently waste land in terms of wealth. This can happen with different peasants living their own separate lives of Adams and Eves in their own particular and closed economic Edens or paradises. These closed worlds, monad-like as in Leibnizian philosophy, are units with doors only and no windows. A happy family unit, as found in natural conditions, is one in which individual, personal and intimate values prevail vertically, as it were, in self-sufficient independence. Collective economy is repugnant to the spirit of such a windowless universe in which human happiness is secured. An infinite number of monads can coexist in a happy economic whole.

THE HAPPINESS OF ALL AND GENERAL HAPPINESS
There are inner goods which yield individual happiness for all, and outer goods which contribute to the general happiness. The happiness of all must not be confused with general happiness. If so confused, the outcome would be uncertainty of value-results. This in principle is not unlike the modern notion of uncertainty known to physics and associated with Heisenberg. Inner happiness has to be individual and for oneself, while outer happiness could be shared. This innate law of reality has to be recognized properly before an integrated body of scientific economic thought can emerge as applicable to the whole of humanity. The money-value of a trickling spring on the grounds of a peasant on the fringes of a forest in some inaccessible mountain district in any part of the world would be zero in the eyes of the shrewd banker-economist. But the eye of the peasant is guided by quite other considerations. The trickling waters of the spring, though a negligible factor in

short-spanned economic valuation, are one that can endure through generations when his children and grandchildren might be expected to live in the same place. The totality of the value that the apparently negligible spring has in reality, would represent, vertically viewed, enormous wealth, whose exchange-value at a given moment might be negligible in the valuation of the moneybag economist or bag-baron. Thus, there are values to be appraised vertically with long time-span units; and values that are to be estimated horizontally as money in exchangeable market-place contexts. These might present a law of direct or indirect logarithmic proportions between them. The calculus of real value thus becomes a complicated affair because of the double uncertainty principle involved. There are therefore two sets of values to be distinguished which are: 1) vertical or real values and 2) their reflections in the market place, where horizontal values are exchanged by tokens or money consisting of coins or currency.

THE ASCENDING PYRAMID OF OPULENCE OR CREDIT
Credit is an abstract value in economics that could be created by common consent. The high priests of the credit system live in Wall Street or in Lombard Street and are votaries at the altar of the Dollar or the Pound Sterling which at present are distinguished by them and treated with favouritism as key currencies, whether covered by gold or not. When public confidence is withdrawn - which can happen, theoretically at least, at any moment, and actually only by the will of God or the whim of chance - this high citadel of the temple of credit might crumble and a new money might have to be devised that would have a more broad-based liquidity or exchange value. Funds might flow from the Dollar to Sterling or in the reverse direction, to stabilise one or the other by short-term recovery programmes in the hope of the full recovery of these key
currencies. Credit, after Sterling was taken off the gold standard in September 1931, became a purer abstraction than before.

These two aspects of credit, one more abstract and independent of the prices of things than the other, would be clear from the following paragraph from J.S. Mill quoted in Thompson's "Elements of Economics":

"When credit comes into play as a means of purchasing distinct from money in hand we shall hereafter find that the connection between the prices and the amount of calculating medium, is much less direct and intimate and that such connection as does exist no longer admits of so simple a mode of expression."(9)

The notion of credit is thus seen to be one that need not be directly connected with gold or other coins in the hand. When England came off the gold standard this aspect of pure credit came into evidence more clearly than ever before in economic history. After this momentous event, the ethical implications of which remain questionable still, there has been further ascent of the notion of credit into higher and purer altitudes. In fact when we come to the International Monetary Fund and the conventions, adjustments and common tacit understandings between countries, whether of the key currency areas or the areas which come under the European Common Market, the status of credit as an abstract value rises one degree higher on the ascending pyramid of credit which we have to imagine. The arrangements and contrivances, both short-term and long-term, by which the credit system is at present propped up by agreements between governments and bankers, American, British and Continental, hold many mysteries for the common man who has not had a peep behind the scenes, where these stabilising or recovery measures are worked out and applied.
Financial wizards alone know, or pretend to know, all that is going on. What is more important is the question whether all that is accepted by expert advisers is really tenable by universal ethical standards. The crag-barons of the moneybag world know how to hide their egocentric, closed and static interests by putting on what they call the façade or big front of respectability, while in actuality "painted tombs might worms enfold". It is not considered respectable in such matters to speak bare-facedly the whole of the truth because we are supposed to live dreamily in the best of possible worlds.

I shall therefore content myself by quoting excerpts from two recent articles written by two of the latest authorities of England who have put the matter in the proper BBC language, clothed in respectable phrases now acceptable. The keen man of common sense can discern here and there gaps and lacunae which violate normal notions, moral, economic and even aesthetic, which ought to be expected to prevail when the wealth and welfare of the peoples of the world, mature or immature, advanced or backward, developed or under-developed, are equally involved. The cause of equal justice for all will be seen to be violated in a subtle way by the very statements which a scrutiny of these passages will reveal to anyone who retains some degree of common sense and common interest in the future of mankind.
Under the caption 'Death of A System', The Listener of July 27, 1961 contains an article by Robert Triffin, a leading economic expert:

"Among the millions of corpses strewn among the battlefields of the first world war, lies one which we have vainly tried for a half century now to dig up, dust off, and put back on its feet: the corpse is the nineteenth-century gold standard."

The gist of the plea of Triffin is contained in the following extracts (Mr. Triffin himself explains):

"The so-called Triffin plan is merely an attempt to couch this broad vision of my President and your Prime Minister into concrete and negotiable terms. It remains far short of the admittedly distant ideal of a free world central bank."

Explaining that the sovereign rights of individual states to create credit within their own frontiers would not easily be given up, Mr. Triffin goes on to indicate the way and extent to which international money could be created by a kind of half-consent, by interpretation of what has been tacitly accepted by a sufficiently large group of parties whose common interests are already involved.

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He goes on:

"I would, as a minimum, authorise some international body - let us say the International Monetary Fund - to hold international, gold-guaranteed reserve deposits for the central banks of the member countries which wish to take advantage of this facility. It is generally felt that this could be done through some mere interpretation of the present status of the International Monetary Fund and would not therefore require re-negotiation and parliamentary approvals etc."

What is in the back of the mind of this expert will come into unmistakable relief when we read the concluding paragraphs of Mr. Triffin, where he refers to "A God-sent Channel for Britain", the title of which itself is sufficient proof that Mr Triffin is thinking still in terms of the closed prosperity of his own group or country without being strictly a One-World Economist as we envisage it here. He says:

"Finally, speaking to a British audience, I hardly need stress the relationship between this problem and the prospective move toward unification of the six or seven of the European Economic Community, Britain and its other European Free Trade Association partners."

THE MORAL ASPECT OF CREATING CREDIT
The accent on the word 'interpretation' above involves the question whether moral considerations should come into this picture of a God-sent opportunity to create credit, as if by the back door. Another expert, Alan Day, writing in "The Listener" of August, 1961 explains and proposes the following way out:

"We are in the middle of a rescue operation for the Sterling which is probably of far greater magnitude than is generally realized; the steps being taken and likely to be taken, could, by a small diversion of their direction lead to the creation of a new world currency which would safely supplement the use of gold"

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Once the new world currency is thus established by the small diversion mentioned above (instead of the interpretation that Mr. Triffin relied on) Mr. Alan Day opines:

"We can go on to the third stage of creating more of this currency in accordance with our needs".

THE BRITISH PRIME MINISTER'S CONSCIENCE
The ethical consideration involved in creating a world currency without a proper world government is a matter that is not faced in these two expert opinions which seem to think in terms of back-door and short-cut terms, with the continued prosperity of only Britain in their minds. Others can use the money thus created, if it is good for them or not. The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom is the only person who seems to have any qualms of conscience in this matter, as may be seen from his words quoted in Mr. Triffin's article. He is quoted as saying:

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"All sorts of remedies are being suggested. The main difficulty about many of them is what I might call the mental hurdles that they might present . . . there seems to be something immoral in increasing the credit base by mutual agreement. Just as each individual country painfully acquired a central banking system, so there ought - ideally - to be a central banking system for all the countries of the free world."

III

WORLD ECONOMICS IS MORE THAN A TREASURE HUNT
We have noticed at the end of the previous section that free enterprise, as understood in a scarcity-based and money-centred economics, is facing, at the present moment, a critical phase. There is reason to think that the whole economic endeavour of the Western World is heading towards a blind alley. The very realization of the dream of big-business success on the lines of free enterprise is having the paradoxical effect of putting the present heroes of enterprise under government guards and in handcuffs to be marched off to prisons. Anti-trust law is by itself a bad sign of the reversal of the course of economic progress. Further, the crisis in which the key currencies are caught at present is making financiers think of creating new credit and new money. They have to take this bold step or face further grave deterioration of the situation. Borrowing by governments has reached some kind of limit of elasticity
of long-term recovery arrangements. Tariff walls do not keep out the smuggler any more, and this gives further room for economic anxiety on a world scale, as the crime itself has attained to large international proportions which have broken through the frontiers of countries. What are called 'silent ships' constantly cross the high seas with contraband cargo reaching from coast to coast, while mountain frontiers themselves are becoming increasingly vulnerable to this international crime. Flouting of tariff walls, trust busting and credit creation are new problems that face the economy of opulence. Soaring prices too point to inflationary tendencies. These, together with the rumblings of a possible war, cold or hot, give us a sombre picture indeed of the world of present-day economics. The end of this chapter of the 'dismal science', which has had its own course to run since the days of the fortune hunters, may be said to be in sight.

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It is time that all informed minds think in terms of One-World Economics instead of dividing it up to confine it within rival, hard or soft, key or sundry currency areas in a relativistic or piecemeal fashion.

A UNITIVE AND NORMATIVE APPROACH
The Physiocrats under Quesnay's leadership represented a school of thought in economics which looked at the question from another pole altogether. They gave primacy to the world of the farmer and the circulation of wealth, whether in kind or in coin, that took place between the farmer and the landlord who received rents from him. According to this school, which thought in terms of the natural abundance of nature's products as against money value, wealth had to circulate freely from one pole to the other between the three main classes: the farmer, the commercial and industrial class, and the landlord class, for economics to be healthy and conducive to the welfare of a given area of populated land such as France. The circulation of wealth - in the form of money, agricultural produce, or raw materials - within only one stratum or sector of the three, was not considered at all economically significant by them. And even when two strata or sectors were involved in the circulation, such a movement of wealth in the world of economics was still called 'imperfect', by Quesnay and his followers. When wealth passed, in one form or another, cutting through the stratifications to reach all who were involved in the economic endeavour of any country; now changing from the farmer's hands to the wage earner's and the businessman's, and reaching the landlord or whoever received the benefit of the rent in money; and now returning to the farmer in a certain annual cyclic alternation and succession - that was a circumstance that spelt real economic progress for any country. We have over-simplified and presented this matter of changing hands and circulation of wealth so as to be able to visualize clearly the underlying scheme and mode of operation of this subtle process of economic circulation visualized by the Physiocrats, who are generally accepted to be the real founders of economic theory outside the old English School.

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These latter were glaringly economists of opulence rather than of abundance, which latter label would more correctly apply to the Physiocrats. In order to show that in so oversimplifying the fundamentals of the circulation of wealth within the main economic classes we have not deflected materially from the authentic position of Quesnay's school, it will not be out of place to quote one paragraph from Engels' essays entitled "Anti Dühring", where he masterfully summarises Quesnay's "Tableau Economique" as follows:

"The whole process is certainly 'fairly simple'. There enters into circulation: from the farmers, two milliards of money for the payment of rent, and three milliards in products, of which two-thirds are means of subsistence and one-third, raw materials; from the sterile class, two milliards in manufactured commodities. Of the means of subsistence amounting to two milliards, one-half is consumed by the landlords and their retainers, the other half by the sterile class in payment for its labour. The raw materials to the value of one milliard replace the working capital of the latter class. Of the manufactured goods in circulation amounting to two milliards, one-half goes to the landlords and the other to the farmers, for whom it is also a converted form of the interest, which arises at first hand out of agricultural reproduction, on their invested capital. The money thrown into circulation by the farmer in payment of rent, however, flows back to him through the sale of his products, and thus the same process can take place again the next economic year."(11)

This summary of the "Analyse du Tableau Economique" of Quesnay, the father of modern economic theory, is described as 'fairly simple' to understand, by Engels in the above paragraph that we have just quoted. Engels himself admits elsewhere in the same essay:

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"The Physiocratic School left us in Quesnay's 'Tableau Economique', as everyone knows, a riddle of which all former critics and historians of political economy have up to now broken their teeth in vain. This 'Tableau' which is intended to bring out clearly the Physiocrats' conception of the production and circulation of a country's total wealth remained obscure enough for the economic world which succeeded it."(12)

QUESNAY'S TABLEAU FURTHER SCRUTINIZED
Even now a layman of common sense can read, with all the attention he can muster and scrutinize, the above-quoted paragraph in which a master economist, Engels, states in 'fairly simple' fashion the gist of what happens in a given unit, in any part of the world, when wealth is produced and is allowed to circulate under normal and normative conditions. We have to underline ourselves here certain key notions involved in the Tableau thus presented, before it can become meaningful to an ordinary reader of the present-day.

1. Quesnay here attempts a normative notion in respect of the production and the circulation of wealth in the most general and mathematically-precise terms that such a subject will admit. Taking his own France as the normative example, he speaks of "milliards of livres (pounds)" as the unit of measurement, grosso modo, considered for purposes of discussion. He relies here, as usual, on a monetary yardstick even when he includes the value of raw produce or consumer goods within its meaning. The abstract and elusive notion of wealth is thus arbitrarily brought under a common value-reference, independently of its actual exchange- or commodity- value prejudices. The milliards here refer to an intermediate kind of generalized and abstracted value-notion, measurable in terms of pounds or livres, which as we shall see, is not fully satisfactory.

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2. After thus selecting France as his unit of a populated area, or as an economic unit, and fixing the yardstick with which to measure value in the abstract, he goes on to divide the stratifications that normally exist in any society into three main divisions, into which the other sub-divisions of economic, religious or political classes or groups, if any, have to be fitted by us, as secondary items that belong to the same picture. There are the farmers who till the soil and cultivate - the real producers of wealth in any country.

Industrialists and commercial people only transport, exchange or modify goods, without affecting the real production or circulation of wealth. These form the second class; and the landlord, who represents the modern capitalist, forms the third class, whose main function is to receive the rent paid by the farming class. The state and the church also have a share in this rent. All of these have to be understood inclusively in generalized abstraction if we want to have a simple, living and vivid notion of how wealth originates and circulates in a given community.

Labelled generically, for the sake of simplicity, we have to think of the 'farming', the 'commercial' and the 'capitalist' classes as forming the three successive strata, cutting through which wealth in the abstract, whether in kind or coin, changes hands. Another rule that Quesnay has laid down is that true circulation of wealth is only what takes place between the three stratifications of the farmer, the commercial world and the world of the receiver of rents.

The other, horizontal, circulation that is absorbed, as it were, within the stratum of one class itself is not counted as wealth of any economic import at all in the interests of the country as a whole. Just change of form or of pocket is not to be counted.
When circulation cuts across all three stratifications of the society, we have, according to Quesnay, a perfect circulation.
If two strata are involved the circulation is imperfect.

The wealth which is absorbed in the same class is like stagnant water within a bed of sand, not available for drinking purposes for the general good, although it might benefit individuals within the group or class and indirectly contribute to the good of all.

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3. In addition to these key indications we have to remember that Quesnay treats the whole matter grosso modo and takes for granted that prices remain constant and that individual exchanges and transactions that actually take place in instalments are all added up into a total for the purpose of visualizing the total wealth in circulation.

3. During the course of any one economic year, the money paid by the farmer (who belongs, as it were, to the negative pole of the situation) to the landlord or capitalist who receives it, circulates, cutting through the successive class stratifications, and comes back to the source where it started. In other words, it flows back to the farmers after going through changes as commodities or exchange values in a very abstract and complicated fashion, which we have to visualize through much intuitive understanding. Thus, from the actual producers, the farmers, wealth may be said to pass through the sterile and unproductive class of the industrial and commercial stratum to reach the rent-receiving class, whether as cash or as a means of subsistence for each class, as it rises to the surface like a spring of net product or surplus-value.

Thus, to separate the net- or surplus-value that results from economic endeavour in any country, is the whole purpose of the "Tableau Economique" of Quesnay, which has puzzled generations of expert economists, but yet remains simple to imaginative minds, like that of an Engels, as he himself says.

In underlining the key notions implicit in Quesnay's normative picture, which is both simple and most elusive, we have in the numbered paragraphs above tried to add our own contributions to the thought in those parts which have been underlined. The reader would do well to scrutinize them again and also finally to take a look at the paragraph from Engels. He would then be able to form in his own mind, however vaguely, the outlines of a normative notion for economic thought which he should retain in his mind in reading the rest of what we have to say ourselves.

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THE NOTION OF VALUE IN ECONOMICS
Next to Leibnizian Monadology or Indian Vedanta, there is no subject that is as given to hair-splitting theoretical speculations as modern economics. The one word 'Value', under its different aspects and complexions, has been the subject of volumes of literature filling many shelves in modern libraries. If we should pick any book on advanced economic theory and turn to the letter "V" in the subject index, we are likely to find a long list of items there, referring to parts of the work devoted to terms such as token value, price-value, use-value, net-value, surplus-value and the like - under direct reference to value, and indirectly to the discussion of such questions as rent value, interest or discount value, profit, product, commodity or individual 'good' or 'goods', seen in the perspective of a particular social context or of a particular time, as a necessary or luxury item of value. In fact, in the first section of this series we have tried to describe economics itself as pertaining to 'value-wisdom'; and then we see that others like Engels have referred to the theory of value in economics as, 'the touchstone of the genuineness of economic systems'. If we should further delimit the scope of this value-science, if we may call it so, as pertaining not so much to happiness in the after-life as to life here in an earthy sense, we would have fully given to the notion of value the central place in this branch of knowledge. When we remember here also that some eminent economists refer to inner and outer values, quantitative and qualitative values, long-term or short-term values, positive or negative values; the ramifications of the notion of values in the economic world of our day becomes a tangled cluster, well, ill or indifferently understood.

There are values of the market place and intimate personal values. Extended notions of value that trace its necessary evolutionary origins from the biceps of a monkey to that of man, as Engels traces it in great detail, bring into this confusion more complications. Can we ever expect that a day will arrive by itself when this kind of subtle theorisation would attain to its final term and leave behind it some simpler over-all outlines of the coherence of fundamental concepts in economics? The prospects seem to be bleak at present.

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On the contrary, rival theories are on the increase as the departmentalization and specialisation of branches of value-wisdom tend more and more to disintegrate economic thought, dispersing individual notions instead of making them hang together by a single central normative concept. This applies not only to the so-called science of economics, but to all knowledge, which is tending to fall apart for want of one common integrative and normative notion which alone could give to subtler aspects of knowledge that unity without which they must remain pieces of information, without attaining to the full status of a science or wisdom.

THE COMPLEX NETWORK OF POSSIBLE HUMAN VALUES
The notion of pure or absolute value, which is important for us to fix for normative purposes of economic thinking, extends from good or goods that refer to life here, to those that go beyond such limits into the hereafter and even to the 'here-before'. An old curiosity shop can have much money- and market-value, but the commodities exchanged therein might have little reference to physical life here at all. Books of antique import, souvenirs and heirlooms, old paintings and the section in which religious articles can be included - all refer to a past which has gone into disuse and been left behind by life here as such. There are other articles of prospective import which refer to the latest vogue, pointing to a tomorrow that can invade the fashion market, which sometimes has fabulous money-values involved. These might refer to a flimsy feather or fur that is just coming into use in high life.

The price of a toy is not regulated by the congealed man-hour labour or the scarcity of the material that enters its composition. As opposed to milk which might be normal food for a new-born child and which might go bad in a day, we can have diamonds or medicines which do not refer to any simple, necessary or general life-interest here and now. The value of these varies with individuals and with the time they are most needed. The value of a beautiful tree in your home lawn, which might represent a high value in itself, is not exchangeable nor could it be replaced by so many man-hour units. You might be willing to pay an enormous sum to see it left alone, without any other article in exchange for it at all.

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Life insurance has many kinds of theoretical values that enter into the economic world without commodities that correspond to them. Human fear, worry or anxiety is the negative wealth involved, which can be cleverly exploited. Likewise, religious charlatans can exploit the gullibility of women or simple and superstitious people, and this too can loom large as a factor in economic life. How drugs and patent medicines can play havoc with healthy economic getting and spending and go against welfare is also evident in modern days. There is thus negative wealth and positive wealth, which can yield both capital and profit. The way of value in human life is more mysterious than most economists make out. They offer us simple pictures of the Promised Land of gold, which is not unlike the promise of paradise from their counterparts in the rival group of persons who deal with the goods of the life to come. Whether life here or hereafter is involved; whether freedom from fear is the only commodity in question; or happiness and plenty for progeny still unborn, for whom misers might normally hoard money - the world of values presents a complex picture. Between human nature and what it might want for its inner or outer satisfactions here and now or hereafter; clinging to things of the past or looking for a prospective world of values; some orderly, organically conceived, normative way of relating all of them into a unitive whole must first be devised before we can answer simple questions of economic import, such as whether a well-bound and gilt-edged Bible would be better than an equal weight of bread to give away to a hungry man at the door. "The cow might die while the grass is being grown" is a familiar proverb, which faces the opposite way to the sense of the other similar saying that "man does not live by bread alone".

Problems of value-wisdom are many and varied. One has to feed the inner and the outer man, and what is food at one time for a person can be poison for another or even for the same man at a different moment. In such a domain of indeterminism and incertitude where time and space are components to determine value, it is sheer childishness to think that value can be visualized in the abstract in

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mathematically-generalized terms without any normative notion to hold together the different aspects of the reality implied. Whether we like it or not; or whether modern thought sanctions such or not; unitive, one-world Economics would be impossible if no normative notion were supplied as a basis for proper economic theory to be raised on its foundations as a lasting superstructure.

PROTOLINGUISM TO THE RESCUE
Profit, interest, rent, net product, marginal value or surplus-value have been variously understood and defined from Ricardo to Marx. A host of others too have left behind a heritage of confused economic definitions, based on theories which give primacy to one or another economic factor such as utility, the consumer, the producer, labour etc. At the present-day there is a forest of rival ideas. If we will only interpose the law that "economics must be for man at least as much as man is for economics", and think in terms of a double-sided relationship between the interests of man and corresponding outer values, we will be able to arrive at a psycho-physical, normative, double-sided notion which will represent the relation-relata complex in which economic life may be said to live, move and have its being. The normative notion has to be simple. We can follow the lines indicated by the founder of modern economic theory, Quesnay, who has, in his "Tableau", which we have examined, simplified for us the economic picture common to any country. A living picture of the economic forces or factors in a normative economic unit anywhere in the world is what we should first visualize. Here, instead of relying on verbosity, as most books do in bringing clarity and simplicity to fundamental economic notions, we have to adopt a schematic and analytic method of geometry which we have elsewhere called the proto-linguistic rather than the meta-linguistic approach. What this consists of will become clear as we read further.

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HOW TO BUILD UP A NORMATIVE NOTION FOR ECONOMICS
Modern economists admit that there cannot be a general rise of 'values', although there can be a general rise of price. They also admit, on the other hand, that a proper notion of value is the touchstone of sound economic theory. By examining the definition of value in any textbook of economics we can roughly determine the philosophical, metaphysical or theoretical basis of the particular school. These will be found to be as varied and subtle as with schools of theology and religion. God and gold have often been referred to in the language of economics as complementary terms referring to life-values here or hereafter. How gold enters the economic world, circulates as ornamental or money-value and finds a place in the vaults of Wall Street, Lombard Street or in Moscow, lending itself to being a standard of value-reference for complex and mysterious reasons - as is the case of the concept of God in theology - has already been studied.

Enough has been said to indicate in a sketchy preliminary fashion how there can be four distinct compartments in which gold as a value can operate. The adoption of the Gold Standard in England before 1931 and the climbing down from it; and the idea of 'created credit' and capital, is a long story in the history of the evolution of economic value into which we cannot here enter.

Capital credit-value, at the present moment, is what makes it possible for 'new money' to be put into circulation by groups of bankers who wish or agree to do so - the ethical implications and justice of which have been questioned by us already. In the world of opulence the circulation and value phases of gold give us the pattern of the relation-relata complex involved in the idea or notion of value. Complementary to this, the world of economics of the days of the physiocrats, which we have analysed in the "Tableau Economique" of Quesnay, gives us a simplified picture of a normative economic scheme. Gold circulation and Quesnay's "Tableau together give us some initial indications of how we can build on them a normative notion of value.

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'IMMATURE' COUNTRIES HAVE TO MAKE UP THEIR MINDS
Economic policies of governments must show net value-production for making the country wealthy. The Physiocrats gave primacy to agriculture in this matter. The gold-rush economic world gave capital the primacy. Abstract credit is the culminating factor at which the so-called advanced countries have arrived. Abstract credit itself has become, at present, a major world economic issue with many-sided and delicate implications. An impending crisis that will affect the whole credit structure of the West is to be expected within reasonably short time limits. Agricultural countries like India have now to make up their minds one way or the other: whether they want to imitate the West and go into the wrong side of the economic fabric represented by capital and its evils; or if they want to build up a stable world of economic abundance in favour of those in rags rather than those with bags. These two economic worlds, however, cannot live together, just as crabbed age and youth cannot live together. The relation between the two worlds of abundance and opulence is such that there is a philosophical principle of incertitude involved between them so that any consciously-conceived programme which gives primacy to the one at once compromises the other. Just as in the case of the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle in modern physics, and the time-honoured error of 'jnana-karma samuccaya' that Sankara puts forward so ably in his writings on Vedanta, no state could have a programme which adopts both kinds of progress.

THE CROSS-ROADS INDICATED BY ROUSSEAU AND VOLTAIRE
We have once already tried to explain the sectors or zones in the
economic world which cannot be mixed promiscuously; but more than presenting an arbitrarily imagined and over-simplified picture, we have not been able to go into all implications.* We have had occasion to quote Rousseau in support of the immiscibility of the two worlds and the programmes corresponding to each. The striking reference to this very fundamental economic law by such an intuitive and penetrating mind as that of a Rousseau warrants repetition of quotation here:

* See page 143 below.

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"Above all do not try to combine these two projects
- they are too contradictory, and wanting to be related
to both by a composite way of progression is to want
to miss both." (13)

We know that between Rousseau and Voltaire the age called that of reason was ushered into being in the history of European thought. Between these two names, one erring on the side of the sentimental and the other on the side of a matter-of-fact attitude that often went beyond the bounds of a normal and candid outlook, we had a revaluation and demolition of old values for new. Any one who has read "Candide" by Voltaire cannot fail to discover that it was an attack on the love of fortune-hunting, whose last picture, marking the utmost limit of absurdity to which such a tendency could be pushed in human life, has been painted by him to hold it up to ridicule in the strongest possible terms.

WEALTH IS NOT MONEY NOR POVERTY MERELY PENNYLESSNESS
Textbooks on economics generally take pains to make the student distinguish what is wealth and state its independence of money. Although the distinction is drawn, the rest of the discussion continues to give primacy to the money-aspect of wealth. A standard of life measurable in terms of money-value is not questioned and generally passes as valid. This is as misleading as when a young man says that he enjoyed his holiday by spending such and such an amount. The absurdity implied is a subtle one and hard to expose. Money and enjoyment do not belong to the same order of reality, and one cannot be the measure of the other. In fact wealth and money could belong to two opposite and reciprocal worlds which have nothing to do with each other. Certain relations in science, we know, vary inversely and others vary directly. Although it might be true that direct proportion might hold good between money and the pleasure it yields; it is a poor yardstick for general over-all use. A simple cup of coffee costs ten times as much in one country than in another, while the cheer it brings remains the same.

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In a country where the economic progress has been money-based, giving opulence the primacy over abundance, the polarity or ambivalence that is evidenced and reflected in the prices of foodstuffs, as compared with a country that gives primacy to abundance, is to be traced to the existence of two distinct value-worlds which are hard to compare by common standards of measurement. A subtler form of vectorial mathematics is here applicable, and the usual statistical mechanistically-conceived statements could give an altogether false picture of good or bad economic conditions. In any attempt that we might be making to fix a norm for economic life, especially if it is to be applicable to the One World that we have in view, we have to make due allowance for the possibility of reciprocal and mutually exclusive worlds. Just as in vector analysis we have to think of the tensors and versors as different, there are subtle considerations in economics which we have to keep in mind if we are to avoid violating fundamental laws consciously or unconsciously. The clarification of a norm in economics could alone remedy such possible errors which prevail at present. The greenness of a colour cannot be measured in terms of redness, but the intensity of incandescence could be measured in terms of candlepower. Monetary standards can measure only horizontal aspects of value, while value as such, on which happiness depends, eludes such measurements. What we mean by these terms, horizontal and vertical, is precisely what these articles are expected to make clear.

IV
ECONOMICS IS VALUE-WISDOM
A comprehensive definition of economics is that it pertains to wisdom about human values. The tendency in modern economics is to confine the world of economics to the market-place transactions that refer to man's physical needs. The Columbia Encyclopaedia defines it as "study of the supplying of man's physical needs and wants". The pragmatic attitude that is behind such a banal way of defining economics is unmistakable. Marshall and others have not delimited the scope of economics to such a drastically earthy extent.

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Ruskin defines the full scope of economics, beyond utility values, when he says:

"There is no wealth but life: life including all its powers of love, of joy and of admiration. That country is the richest which nourishes the greatest number of noble and happy human beings."(14)

Between these two views of the scope of economics we have to arrive at a normative definition.

ECONOMICS IS FOR MAN
We have to admit in the first place that economics is for man and not man for economics, which latter might have no regulative or normative central principle at all, whether in the world of existence, of knowledge, or in that of axiological values. Economics has to cater to the inner or outer wants of man at all levels, from bread to freedom. All constitutions of states start by a guarantee of these primary factors that touch human life. Man does not live by bread alone, and losing one's soul would be more disastrous than profiting by the gain of the three worlds. Any science of economics worth the name must put man at the core, both as the 'subject-matter' and 'object-matter' of all economic endeavour. Although economics does not directly promise human happiness in so many words, no economics that does not refer to human welfare or what amounts to the same - his happiness - could be interesting or significant.

POVERTY AND UNHAPPINESS ARE NOT DIRECTLY PROPORTIONATE
The notion of sin is a basic assumption in theology. To modern economists scarcity corresponds to the notion of sin in theology. It is on this basic assumption that they build up false theories of economic backwardness or immaturity without reference to any norm to evaluate the standard of life. It is the same as referring to a good Christian applying strange and outlandish norms. An opulent or an abundant economics must equally have the happy man as its yardstick, instead of a monetary standard, which would be like measuring something uncertain with another more uncertain.

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Julian Marias, writing on the Commonwealth, brings out this point of poverty and 'poverty' when he says:

"Economic poverty is not equivalent of vital poverty; when poverty remained simple poverty, it inspired in me a deep respect, mingled with admiration, and it seemed to be not far from a state of well-being or if you prefer, happiness."(15)

The Empire State Building in New York requires hundreds of thousands of dollars to keep it warm for its inmates during more than half the year when it is cold; this has to be subtracted from the standard of living of the Indian who lives at a temperature that approximates body temperature year in and year out and through each day and night. How to measure the welfare involved by a monetary standard of life is one of the questions that stare us in the face. This, like many other myths, prevails in the mind of the average modern who claims to know such matters. The inner and outer man have to match with inner and outer good or goods to spell happiness through wisdom. Such is the scope of economics understood from a One-World and global human basis.

THE RELATION-RELATA COMPLEX OF AN ECONOMIC NORM
The fruit of the forbidden tree stands for the context of all that is considered evil in Christianity. Although stated in the language of fable or myth, the story of Adam and Eve gives the start for Biblical spiritual speculations. What economics amounts to, in the simplest of terms, is the question that must be squarely answered before any scientific economics could result. Man finds himself placed in an economic situation which calls for some good qualities on his part, whether of the head or of the heart, to deal with this question in a way conducive to the good of all and the general good. Virtue and wisdom go hand in hand and are to be treated as dialectical counterparts. Individual and collective happiness have to be thought of together, and life here and hereafter in all its grades referring to the present or the future, cannot be omitted from the full scope of economics, properly understood.

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As we have seen, the emergence of value through correct economic wisdom and corresponding behaviour on the part of man is what economics is studied for. In a statement such as, 'there can be a general rise of prices but there cannot be a general rise of values', which is a textbook dictum already accepted, it is easy to derive that the almost mystical or metaphysical notion of value, which has further been referred to as the touchstone of all economic theory, has or ought to have a central place in economics conceived as a science. In the notion of "net product" of Quesnay and of "surplus-value" with its subdivisions of absolute and relative values in the writings of Karl Marx, we attain to a degree of subtlety in the name of economic theory which is on a par with philosophical and theological speculations. It would be, therefore, quite in place to examine in the simplest and most abstract terms that situation which is the basis of what is known as the emergence of economic value to Man.

THE USE OF PROTO AND METALINGUISTICS IN ECONOMICS
Man as the central core or nucleus of the situation - equally concerned with the plus and minus sides, or the subjective and the objective sides, of the relation-relata-complex involved - is the measure of good or bad economics. A good economist is one who saves both himself and others from errors in respect of human values. With the neutral and abstracted idea of a man, representing all men involved, we have to place him in his proper economically-conceived relation-relata complex. There is the good within him like a streak of gold in his heart; and there are other goods which enter into and exit from their relation-relata complex, holding interest or significance for him at a given moment or place. There is primary wealth, or preliminary or negative wealth, as well as commodities or goods with use-value, price-value or exchange-value - all of which have to be thought of together in the process of flux of economic life that repeats itself year after year, decade after decade, or century after century in human life. There will be periods of economic depression or rise, like the seasons, or like night and day.

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There will also be local changes like climate, or like weather, which is temporary. Man has to be fitted and studied in his economic environment, which varies according to time and space. The alternating cycles that are normally expected and actually registered in economic life have also to be fitted into a living, normative picture of the economic life of man. All these factors have to be imagined as clinging together as if hanging by the same peg, if the normative notion desirable for regulating economic thought should be effective.

It is difficult for the mind of man to grasp all the factors that thus come to a single focus of attention, and it is therefore that we have said in an earlier section that proto-linguistics has to come to the rescue here. Charting, mapping, graphs, schematic representations with one or more factors that vary reciprocally, concurrently or in direct or inverse proportion, with a polarity, dichotomy or ambivalence; as when we are asked to think of aspects of happenings that are interdependent in economic life, such as supply and demand, collection and distribution, interest and discount etc. - all require a monadic abstract model or pattern in visualizable terms. In fact the cobweb charts now employed in equilibrium analysis have paved the way for the use of proto-linguistics as against descriptive, statistical, formal or verbal definitions etc. - which pertain to the world of language which itself requires to be further examined, verified or confirmed from a more meta-linguistic standpoint such as that of mathematics or logical calculus. (16) An algebraically-expressed formula in economic calculus would thus have a meta-linguistic character, while a graph with the use of Cartesian correlates (which is also mathematical but belongs to analytical geometry) is proto-linguistic rather than meta-linguistic. A unit economic situation in a descriptive pictorial language and the various phases of value that gold could have in relation to man have already been examined. How the same scheme could be used in other branches of precise thinking has also been explained in various articles of the present writer, ranging through education, science and even theology and logic. Like vector analysis this is a new approach that is here recommended for clarity and certitude in the language of a normalized Science of sciences for the one world of tomorrow.

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THE FOUR LIMBS OF AN ECONOMIC SITUATION
Just as the sun and sunlight belong together, we have to think of economic problems subjectively and objectively at once. In a science like that of geology it might be sufficient to examine fossils or rocks microscopically or megascopically as specimens in a museum. Where human welfare and wealth are involved, we have to approach the subject more unitively; and the totality of a unit economic situation has to be first visualized in living and real terms. In trying to be positive, economics cannot afford to be merely 'objective' in the sense that Compte meant. In fact, Compte failed to bring sociology and economics within the scope of his positivism, as he himself admitted. Just as the first fall of man in the Bible is the starting point for Christian speculation which concerns the welfare of man in the life hereafter, economics has to have a simple starting point for normative thinking in what concerns good economy here on earth. Instead of relying on myth or fable for supplying this nuclear pattern of all economic thought in the name of positivism, we have to resort to another modern device which is becoming more and more accepted by modern economists themselves, which is that of the charts of equilibrium analysis. If it is conceded thus far, it would be easy to see that every simple or primary economic situation examined as a relation-relata-complex consists of four limbs comprised within two main axes of reference, referring to the space-factor and the time-factor respectively. Nothing can take place without space and time being involved in it, whether it is physical space or mental space that we are thinking of. Actual and perceptual, or even conceptual space, have here to be fitted first into a natural psycho-physical frame of reference to enable us to arrive at a norm in economics which, as we have seen, concerns the inner man and the outer man, just as much as the inner and outer 'good' which enters into economic circulations, motions or transactions. Economics means movement as well as values that have inner or outer significance.

The charge of preferring scarcity as a primary assumption in economic theory, which persists like original sin, vitiating economics from the days of the gold rush to the present-day,

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and the legitimate stigma attached to this branch of knowledge as a dismal science or as mammon-worship, would be more-or-less justified if we do not give to economics the total basis on which both natural abundance and opulence artificially created through a special kind of scarcity economics, have equal place. Negative and positive wealth have to be treated together as one whole, unitively understood.

In one sense economics could be visualized simply as an event that takes place between the two sides of a counter dividing one from the many, whether persons or goods might be involved. There are goods of qualitative value and goods of quantitative value that are exchangeable in space or in time. Individual transactions and transactions on a social or national scale involve one or many counters, real or implied. Representatives of different classes derive benefits from these transactions, taking in a frame of time-space and quality-quantity factors. The man, the transaction and the complex of values involved, must all be capable of being thought of together before economic intelligence, sagacity or value-wisdom generally, could operate and could lend itself to study or intelligent scrutiny. The economic policy-maker must predict wrong or evil and remain on the right path leading to the general good and the good of all involved. The political parties of any country in their rival election manifestos invariably devote a paragraph to their economic creeds, which in their effect of dividing the people of a country amongst themselves, are as effective, if not more effective, than religious schisms. It is therefore of the utmost importance that a normative notion be supplied for this science, which otherwise would be no better than the rival religious or sectarian groups that already spell unhappiness by their very existence.

THE EMERGENCE OF ABSOLUTE SURPLUS-VALUE WITH MARX
The notion of value is the touchstone of sound economic theorisation. From net product, rent, profit and interest, to the culminating notion of absolute surplus-value, aspects of value have been found much mentioned in the writings of economists from Quesnay to Karl Marx. The distinction between absolute and relative surplus-values is a mystical or metaphysical one.

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The following extract from Marx's "Capital" will make the complications evident to the lay reader:

"A prolongation of the working day beyond the time during which the worker was producing no more than an equivalent of the value of his labour power, and the appropriation of this surplus-value by capital - this is the production of absolute surplus-value. It forms the general foundation of the capitalist system and the starting point of the production of relative surplus-value. The latter presupposes that the working day is already divided into two portions, necessary labour and surplus labour, the period of necessary labour is shortened by means which enable the equivalent of the wage of labour to be produced in a shorter time.

The production of absolute surplus-value depends only upon the length of the working day: the production of relative surplus-value revolutionises out and out the technical process of labour and the way in which society is subdivided into groups."(17)

In the introduction by C. D. H. Cole of Oxford, a well-known authority in English economics, he starts off by saying that "Karl Marx's 'Capital' is not an easy book to read". (18) If this is a fact with fully-trained economists, we can concede that, as far as the common-sense reader is concerned, these and similar paragraphs must remain a closed book for ever, as in the case of the most cryptic sayings of any book of theology or esoterics.

HEGELIAN ABSOLUTISM IMPLICIT IN MARXIST ECONOMIC THEORY
We can see the affinities of the theory implicit here to that of Hegel, which through Engels has afforded the philosophical foundation and supplied the frame of reference for Karl Marx. We have to remember that Hegelian Absolutism, when further elaborated, leads to the triple notions of thesis, antithesis and synthesis, which interact and absorb each other or one another by a mechanism, known to dialectical thought, that would take us back to pre-Socratic philosophers in the history of European thought.

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It would not be a far-fetched generalization to state that Marx's "Capital" contains mystical or esoteric secret doctrines which it is not easy to analyse and state in positively clear terms, as required of any science.

THE FALL OF THE ABSOLUTE
The difference between the Absolute and the Relative is itself a subtle philosophical one. When Einstein's Theory of Relativity prides itself in being different from that of Newton or Euclid of classical times, the vogue in science at the present-day seems to be in favour of the non-absolutist way. Philosophers themselves have raised the slogan of the 'Decline and Fall of the Absolute'. The very first sentence of a book devoted to twentieth-century Analytical Philosophers, which bears the above slogan as the title of its first chapter, reads:

"It is a remarkable tribute to an enormously muddled but brilliant German professor of the nineteenth century that almost every important philosophical movement of the twentieth century begins with an attack on his views; I have in mind Hegel…" (19)

To use the words 'Absolute' and 'Relative', expecting the ordinary reader to grasp its implications existentially, subsistentially or in the domain of value, is thus a difficulty at first sight insurmountable. If we could make use of proto-linguistics the task at once becomes easier. We know that as between a Bradley and a Bain in the logical tradition of
England there is still a great unbridged methodological and epistemological gap. Bradley is a dialectician, but Bain still confines himself to the framework of the tradition of Aristotle, which is that of the world of syllogism. These two worlds are far apart and at the same time they interpenetrate in a subtle way. The relativistic outlook of Bain is transformed into the absolutist way of thinking in Bradley. This absolutist way, in fact, belongs to the pre-Socratic tradition of dialectical thinking;
while the relativist way belongs to the usual world of objective realities and formal relations.

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To give to both the absolute and the relative their legitimate places in a total scheme is the task that we have to accomplish here without taking sides with either exclusively. This would imply a revaluation of methodology and epistemology on a total unitive basis, which we shall deal with in a later chapter.

THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS OF AN ABSOLUTIST OUTLOOK
How the Cartesian tradition was broken by the phenomenology of Hegel, further amplified by the English philosopher Hamilton, and elaborated through various stages by Husserl in recent times, is a long and complicated story which we shall not enter into. We shall content ourselves by stating that this notion of absolute surplus-value has to be fitted into some sort of post-Hegelian philosophical context if it is to have any intelligible meaning at all. Without stopping to examine whether phenomenology, in its latest form, was subscribed to directly by Marx and Engels or not; and in order to be able to fit this mystico-metaphysical theory of absolute surplus-value into its proper context; we are obliged here to build up a spatio-temporal relation-relata-complex so that we could arrive at a normative notion for the restated science of value which we have said that economics must conform to in the world of tomorrow. The following quotation from Edmund Husserl, referring to a world of facts and affairs and a world of a values, a world of goods and a practical world, which could co-exist inter-subjectively and phenomenologically, penetrating each other trans-physically in terms of intentional immanence and transcendence at once; and which could belong to any person thought of in the first, second or third persons singular or plural, masculine or feminine; representing the final stages or unconsciously affiliated - would serve for us as a spring-board to enter fully into our own further speculations leading to the finding of a scientific norm for economic thought.

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"In this way, consciously awake, I find myself at all times, and without my ever being able to change this, set in relation to a world which is 'present' for me, and I myself am a member of it. Therefore this world is not there for me as a mere world of facts and affairs, but with the same immediacy, as a world of values, a world of goods, a practical world. Without further effort on my part I find the things before me furnished not only with qualities that befit their positive nature, but also with values - characters such as beautiful or ugly, agreeable, or disagreeable, pleasant or unpleasant, and so forth... These values and practicalities, they too belong to the constitution of the 'actually present' objects as such...The same considerations belong of course just as well to the men and beasts in my surroundings as to 'mere things'." (20)

THE CIRCULATION OF VALUE ON A PHENOMENOLOGICAL BASIS
On such a phenomenological basis let us now visualize the circulation of value. If economic theory turns round the notion of value and is related to good or goods in the abstract on one side, and to the mind of man who practises good economics on the other; it is but natural to see that such a notion is made to belong to its proper background, scientifically and philosophically. We have seen that Quesnay himself, who has been called the father of modern economic theory, and to whom even Adam Smith wanted to dedicate his work on the "Wealth of Nations", had his favourite notion of value which he preferred to call the net product of agriculture, understood with reference to a unit country like France. The farmer produced true wealth, as opposed to the sterile activities of the industrialists whose labours were lost in the sands of vain effort and cancelled out by price rises. Net product was a value that circulated in annual cycles, changing hands from class to class among the three main stratifications of society; cutting vertically, as it were, across these stratifications instead of merely circulating within each of them and losing itself like water in a bed of sand. This same idea of two kinds of value - one that was not true value and the other which mattered - was thus at the basis of the scheme of normal economic phenomena, even with the Physiocrats.

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With Engels and Marx we see this same idea further fitted into the context of Hegelian idealism or absolutism, in spite of the materialistic and historical perspective in which Marx and Engels wished to examine the notion of absolute surplus-value. We have purposely chosen this extreme position taken by Marx for discussion here so that between Quesnay and Marx, whom we have tried to examine, we could extract two fundamental and interrelated notions, which refer to relative and absolute value.

PROTO-LINGUISTIC TERMINOLOGY
In proto-linguistic language the relation between these two sets of values could be represented by two lines that cut at right angles. This has been developed in the language of Cartesian co-ordinates. The same graphical schematization could be adopted in economics with a great reduction of mere verbosity.

Ricardo's rent, value, interest, profit, capital and credit, and pure credit-creation by Wall Street, Lombard Street or Moscow would all fall on the plus side of the vertical axis. If we should think of the four limbs of economic life, as conventionally accepted by textbook writers, which are: land, labour, entrepreneur and capital; we could make these four factors accord with the negative-vertical, the negative-horizontal, the positive-horizontal and positive-vertical aspects, respectively, of the unit economic situation, whether applicable to small-scale individual transactions or to economic phenomena viewed in the larger historical setting of Western conditions. Unexploited land should be understood as potential or negative wealth, not thinkable of in terms of coin or currency, which refer to the horizontal aspects of wealth. Big business and commerce, justly called by Quesnay the sterile stratum, would refer to the horizontal competitive, collective and mutually distinctive aspect of value. Inflation and soaring prices are produced when this aspect of economics is strained beyond certain limits. Vertical interaction between trust and credit within healthy economic units is what is most desirable in the interests of general economic happiness or welfare for all involved in that
particular unit.

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World economics has to be imagined as the harmonised and scientific expansion of the four-fold factors involved, so that there would be proportionate growth and not lopsided monstrous accretions or bloatings of one limb at the expense of the others. The preservation of the identity, purity and integrity of the peasant population is all-important, as the negative base of the vertical is the real source of all true wealth, as we shall presently explain.

VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL VALUES AND THEIR CIRCULATION
When Quesnay opines that commerce and industry are unproductive of net gain for any unit norm in economics, he is merely referring to horizontal value. When, on the other hand, Karl Marx refers to absolute surplus-value, he refers to the emergence of a subtle qualitative abstraction in the world of value which makes its effect felt in the total historical or social setting of any considerably large area treated as an economic unit. This is vertical value. This is like the cream that comes to the top of a can of milk, or like the honey that is stored by bees as extra when all the wants of the individuals of the bee-hive, whether drone, worker or queen, have been satisfied - this is also the share of the credit-making financier. Wealth has a habit of getting polarised as credit in centres of high finance, while the polar counterpart of the same wealth could exist in a negative, potential form in far-flung corners of the globe. Sheep that graze on the meadows of Australia are the real wealth of which the credit available in banks is only a poor reflection. Money does not multiply, but when sheep multiply, their reflection in the form of abstract credit could bear interest, to make credit ascend or descend vertically to serve human wants. Thus there is a return of rent paid to the landlord and to the farmer, as Quesnay in his "Tableau Economique" has made abundantly clear. Thus there is too, inevitably, a circulation of wealth in which it changes over from goods to cash of various grades and orders known to economic textbooks as commodity, consumer goods, produce etc. It is hard to imagine all the phases, virtual or actual, positive or potentially negative, as referring to time or space, as price-value or use-value. The course of value-transformation or metamorphosis is a mystery which none except the most gifted of intuitive persons can clearly visualize.

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In broad outline, however, it is possible to generalise and state that the course of value describes a kind of figure-of-eight in its changeover or alternation between the four aspects of value that we have postulated.

One has to see the circulation of wealth in Quesnay's "Tableau" first, and then one has to fit this circulation into the four-limbed phenomenological world of values that we have outlined, (supported by the quotation from Husserl above). Finally, one has to visualize the emergence of absolute surplus-value as a result of action that is brought to bear on the total economic situation in the form of brute labour coming from the workman's muscles; and that subtler vertical counterpart of the same labour-principle, conceived in the abstract as a social, qualitative, historically necessary element - which is the use-value as opposed to the price-value of a product. The coat that a tailor makes to fit a particular man has a limited and personal or qualitative use-value; while ten yards of linen, which might cost the same as the coat made by the tailor, has a general quantitative price-value.

The use-value is thus a vertical factor while the price-value of ten yards of linen, which is exchangeable with the coat (as Marx points out through these favourite examples), is a horizontal factor.

Many other examples are possible, and it would be hard for the reader to extract the difference between these two sets of values - which it is most important to distinguish - without a proto-linguistic frame of reference. Every notion of value has implied in it four distinct aspects which have always to be kept in mind together before any conscious economic thinking or planning could take place, whether on a small or large scale, or on a short term or long term. The course that gold, as a visible economic factor, takes to enter into human affairs and effect its exit, after functioning as different values, vertical or horizontal, positive or negative, has been examined by us in Chapter 10. In it we have also tried in an initial fashion to indicate in the form of a table the same four aspects of a primitive or simple unit economic situation.

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In that chapter we accomplished little more than to come in sight of the bare outlines of a normative notion in economics as a science of values in human life here. Now we have to draw further definitions, clarifications and schematic representations from these initial fundamental factors outlining this normative notion, where otherwise much false doctrine and consequent charlatanism could prevail in respect of this elusive subject.

THE OUTLINE FEATURES OF AN ECONOMIC NORM
The first step is to place man in his proper economic environment, conceived in terms of value. As the sun and the world lit by sunlight belong together, we have to imagine a phenomenological world of values of which the core is man himself. Man is the measure of all things: particularly so when, in economics, we are directly concerned with making man happy. The one and the many, the general good and the good of all, have to be fitted together as reciprocal aspects of the same dialectically-conceived verity. When all are happy, the individual is happy; and when individual happiness is not guaranteed, collective programmes of happiness or welfare would defeat their own purposes.

THE PURE AND PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF VALUE HAVE TO BE DISTINGUISHED
There is a time-axis and a space axis: with either of these as reference we could think of an axiological world. A planned economy cannot consciously give primacy both to the world of opulence and to that of abundance at the same time. Two rival gods cannot be propitiated by the same prayer. There is an innate reciprocity and an inverse variation between these two ambivalent aspects of economic life.

We have used the terminology of analytical geometry to refer to these aspects proto-linguistically as the vertical and horizontal aspects of value. A series of value-worlds could lie along these axes.

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One could think of something like units or monads in economics, which could be graded quantitatively along the two axes with their positive and negative polarities. We have already referred to these four aspects in passing. In the next
section we shall examine them in greater detail and try to define them more precisely, insofar as such definitions could be indulged in without a fuller treatment in a regular treatise, which the subject fully deserves. Leaving such a task for someone better qualified and to the future, we shall here content ourselves with finally indicating the circulation of value in the economic world so that the normative notion that we are attempting to usher into view may have that living element without which economics would lack any reference to living movements as such, and give us only a static picture instead of a dynamic one. Good economics must spell progress and a life more abundant. The goal of economics must be to free man from want or suffering both inner and outer. Here its programme might have common boundaries with that of spirituality, though not with any static and closed religion as such. True economics, when it works, takes man from a lower world of values to a higher one, in a vertically conceived scale of value-worlds. There are lower worlds of negative wealth which have also to be given their legitimate place in the polarised worlds of values, so that we could plan both an abundancist and an opulencist economics - without, however, compromising the mutual exclusiveness of these value-worlds. The innate contradiction between the two can be transcended by a unitive approach, which would make economics the preserve of the expert of experts. The relation-relata-complex of value- factors, in which economics has to live and move when properly understood, has to avoid major errors and consequent disasters. Sometimes opposite effects can accrue from pressures wrongly applied in the delicate set-up of economic life. One has, in fact, to be greater than a yogi to be a fully sure economist. A planned economy is generally full of pitfalls. If the country subjected to a planned economy still survives it is not unlike the patient living in spite of the wrong remedies applied by the doctor. Ascending and descending economic policies can be applied only by way of adjusting the internal conditions of a country with its external relations, so that a favourable balance could be struck, and progressive pressure maintained with an eye to different kinds of human values.

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If, after the reading of this fourth section, the reader would concede that there are two distinct economic worlds of human value: one of abundance and the other of opulence; and that there are between them two axes of reference where positive and negative value-factors reside; and also concede that in broad terms there is an alternating circulation, measurable in decade or century units, of a kind which has to be kept healthy in good economics for any economic unit to function - the rambling discussion that we have been obliged to adopt hitherto would have served its initial purpose. Above all, it is for a law of economics to recognise that the innate ambivalence makes it impossible for an abundancist economics to be consciously planned side-by-side with an economics of opulence.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ECONOMICS

We propose in this last section to try and arrive at indicating, though in a preliminary fashion only, the principles, laws and definite notions that must underlie economics if it is to be recognized as a science. We shall adopt a decimal system of numbers for the systematic taxonomy of these items, examined in a graded fashion.

1. Economics is a branch of axiology. It refers to human values both inner and outer.

1. 1. Economics is a science of value-wisdom as it refers to life here, as opposed to life hereafter, where we are more properly in the domain of religion.

1. 2. A Utopia or a heaven, which refer respectively to ideal conditions of life here or hereafter, are envisaged by rival enthusiasts who propose to better the lot of human beings.

1. 3. The danger of tenaciously adhering to favourite items of such programmes of values, is common to both these sets of enthusiasts. Superstitious creeds and dogmatic or doctrinal orthodoxy could vitiate both fields, except when looked upon with a living human aloofness and dispassion, without selfish axes to grind. Both of these fields offer equal opportunities for charlatans.

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1. 41. Good economics, as it applies to a given unit, could yield either opulence or abundance, but not both, except by very rare coincidence.

1. 42. The difference between these two economic worlds is like a mirror image and its original. They form complex value-systems, both at the pole of opulence and at that of abundance.

1. 43. Prices can be artificially raised or lowered by economic planning, but the one value that spells human happiness is to be understood as a state of balance, equilibrium, stability or harmony between the forces of satisfaction and the wants that operate within a unit economic situation.

1. 44. In the absence of a normative unit notion of value, the idea of raising the standard of life can have no meaning. Raising the standard might be at the expense of abundance and in favour of opulence, which must spell economic insecurity, instability or lopsided progress - which is only progress in appearance.

1. 45. Price-value depends on exchangeability in the market; and use-value is of intrinsic significance for single individuals. The former may be called horizontal while the latter is vertical.

1. 46. There are values that yield short-term benefits to an individual or group, which are horizontal; and those which give long-term benefits may initially be broadly distinguished as vertical.

1. 47. Inner and outer values in life meet from opposite poles in the self, which is the absolute value that each human represents to himself.

2. A happy human being is the normative goal of economic endeavour. Collective happiness is only the resultant of individual happiness.

2. 1. The individual is only happy when he makes another happy or works for the general happiness of mankind.

2. 2. Unilateral economic transactions bringing benefit to one party while making another a loser, violate the most fundamental of all economic laws, viz., that all economics is for both parties in any transaction.

2. 21. Aggrandisement, selfishness, domination, explanation and injustice are various attributes signifying the absurdity involved in one-sided or dualistically-conceived economics. Charlatanism, cheating and robbery are also applicable in such dealings, in actual or figurative language.

2. 2. Absolute value has no limbs; it refers to a state of felicity when all concerned are, and each concerned is, happy at once and forever. Wealth has four limbs: production-consumption and trust-credit. The former pair represents the plus and minus sides of the horizontal, and the latter the negative and positive aspects of the vertical.

2. 3. Normal, perfect and economically healthy circulation of wealth is when all the above four aspects alternate as successive phases of the economic cycle of activity.

2. 4. Sterile circulation tends to be wholly horizontal, while productive circulation passes through vertical levels. Surplus-value is an abstraction which gains its meaning with reference to an absolutist or verticalized notion of wealth.

3. Pure values are those that have unity of ends and means. When means and ends are divorced, wealth becomes pillage or booty.

3. 1. Wealth is best when it is self-sufficient. The resulting value is human happiness.

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3. 2. Capital is credit ready to support economic undertakings.

3. 3. Trust is what ensures endurance and security to wealth.

3. 4. Price, money, currency, exchange-value and token-value are aspects of wealth as it moves or circulates horizontally.

3. 41. Bank rates have their plus and minus aspects tending to come to balance or equilibrium as between interest and discount.

3. 42. Short-term and long-term economic transactions compensate or contradict each other by virtue of the principle of double gain or double loss.

4. The dialectics of the one and the many is involved in all economics. This is most evident in insurance, which involves no visible goods in its transactions. Advertising is for the broadening of the basis of the implicit dialectics of the one and the many. The business counter is the point where the limbs of business, involving one-and-the-many relations of long-term or short-term duration, have their locus, both abstract and concrete. Time compensates for space, and quality for quantity etc. at this locus.

4. 1. A normative notion in economics is like a monad or a Monad of all monads conceivable or possible as units in economic life. We have to distinguish between monads in which horizontal aspects dominate over the vertical and the positive over the negative, in each of the axes of reference. These monads might be supposed to exist in vectorial space in
terms of tensor theory, giving room to absolute or relative monads or the Monad of all monads. For the sake of simplicity we have to conceive of them as belonging to a flat surface consisting of two correlates - time or interval being the absolute element involved. The elaboration of this kind of economic monadology based on the four limbs of economic activity is mostly the work of future experts who accept the basis of the above.

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4. 2. In "The Wealth of Nations" of Adam Smith and in the "Tableau Economique" of Quesnay, some unit country is kept in mind, which is mostly arbitrary. The Quesnay unit is more natural and normal than the 'nation' vaguely considered by Adam Smith, which would more really only apply to the mercantilist units in the economic life of such places as London, The Hague or Rotterdam and regions around them. So-called "economically under-developed" units have wealth only for exploitation by the so-called "developed" nations, according to such notions. To the extent that this notion of wealth is not normalized it is not right to think in terms of it.

4. 3. The number of happy individuals that a state can produce is the real measure of its economic well-being.

4. 4. Happiness has to be judged with its natural human counterparts. No mother could be considered wealthy if her child is poor, no king without his subjects, no master without his servant, no husband without his wife etc. Unilaterally-conceived riches, wealth, money or happiness as an over-all
value, has no sense. It is absurd.

4. 5. If the food that is grown in a country is not available to the mouths of its inhabitants to feed on in a normal and natural way, an economic absurdity of lack of living correlation of value takes place. Human intelligence often causes more trouble by mechanistic arrangements of production and distribution for money-profit, making the human lot worse than before. A fishwife on a coral island cannot get the coconut that grows near her hut, because of its money- and exchange-value which makes it beyond her economic reach. Horizontal forces cut across the peace and self-sufficiency that would have naturally prevailed when vertical forces are left alone. The laissez-faire policy has herein its justification.

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4. 6. The outcome of horizontal economic endeavour is competition and that of the vertical is co-operation.

4. 7. When two farmers resort to litigation, both lose what each should have gained vertically by agriculture. A double loss or gain is implied which is dialectical in its implications. The children of both might starve instead both having abundance.

4. 8. A State Reserve Bank employee has a higher standard of living conditions when in service; but his children become homeless when he retires and there are scenes of weeping on that day. Long-term security is not always implied in a higher standard of life.

4. 9. The constant insecurity of the fear of being fired or laid off at short notice often stares in the face of people who enjoy a very high standard of life. This is poverty entering by the back door when the life of getting and spending gets a horizontal accentuation. Such a life is full of tension and exacting on the nerves.

4. 91. Working women in cold countries are often thrown out of city tenements for not being able to pay winter heating expenses in advance by a certain date in autumn. Long-term insecurity is a keen form of poverty, hidden under high standards of day-to-day individual living.

5. The dialectics of the one and the many, when it acts in conjunction with the principle of economic intervals of short-term or long-term changes of value, gives us the normative notion of what constitutes the core of economic life.

5. 1. To decide controversial questions, like the one that has been recently engaging rival schools of expert economists in London, on whether the European Common Market would improve the economics of each country involved or not, they have to be first viewed in the perspective of the vertico-horizontal complex involved. The broad-based perspective of the relations of the one and the many would spell gain, but individual nations might lose much during the transition.

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5. 2. Advertising is a supreme example of how, by broadening the basis of the one and the many and by intensifying by repetition the value-aspect of some good or goods, monopolistic economic domains are built up. Here no goods need be involved, only ideas.

5. 21. A news agency or advertising firm, having advertising itself for its own sake as its item of business, shows how economics can thrive on airy nothings.

5. 22. Film advertising thrives on the features of a film star, which is a flimsy basis in itself.

5. 3. Banking and insurance thrive on mere bookkeeping, and that with other people's money. It is strange to hear, in spite of this, that religious mendicants who take after the example of a Christ or a Buddha, preaching the Kingdom of God or Dharma for all humanity without any return gain, are considered by modern plan-economists, even in India, as economic liabilities rather than assets. There is a strange irony here.

5. 4. Some holy cities of the East and some civilised ones of the West, thrive on exaggerations of sacredness or sin as their main article in trade. Prostitution as well as holiness could both be flourishing industries of a questionable character.

5. 5. Mere lewdness or obscenity could sometimes take the place of an article of trade. It breeds sterility or immoral prosperity without true economic goods.

5. 6. A man of good repute anywhere is an economic asset. A woman is more so.

5. 7. The correct way of getting and spending is represented by the model economic man characterised by parsimony, right abstinence and a wholehearted love of the general welfare and the welfare of all, and whose only added gain to himself is a life more abundant in every way.

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5. 8. Gandhi and Tolstoy and all leading saints of all climes and times have had great economic forces implied in them, linking the one with the many, broad-basedly for enduring time-spans.

5. 9. Economics is as much for man as man is for economics. Economic ends and means have their meeting point in him.

6. Credit and Trust accrue round persons or corporations with the value called goodwill, which is a great economic good. Goods are only secondary in importance. Production and distribution take place when credit meets trust.

6. 1. Prodigals and fortune-hunters belong to the credit side, while misers and hoarders belong to the trust side.

6. 2. Trust could be lost, as with sterling now; and credit could be dishonestly created, as attempted through the ECM. World opinion can affect the combined structure and make it burst like a bubble.

6. 3. A carefree life in natural abundance is worth more than the life of a multi-millionaire ready to commit suicide from his skyscraper window.

6. 4. Grains and eatables hidden under bamboo beds make more real wealth than refrigerators containing only half a bottle of Coca-Cola.

6. 5. Winter in the West represents an accumulated weight of poverty unknown in warm climates and lands filled with mud huts and people in rags. A good climate is for all, and is not to be measured in money-value.

6. 6. Market fluctuations are either due to a spatial or a temporal scarcity of wanted goods. Both these factors could exist together with their four limbs so that inflation becomes an economic mystery. Conscious remedies due to 'experts' often make the patient die earlier.

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6. 7. Lloyd's Bank represents merely the reflected glory of the sheep that graze in the pastures of Australia. The labour is on the part of the grazing sheep.

6. 8. Abstract labour as well as surplus-value are metaphysical
abstractions used by writers on economic theory. Mathematically, there is vertical and horizontal labour. These produce positive or negative values of price or of use.

6. 9. A woman conceiving and giving birth involves negative vertical labour. A man digging is in travail of a positive kind in the horizontal. When treated as recreation they become interchangeable and cancel-out naturally in the joy of living.

7. Work becomes no work when it becomes natural and enjoyable.

7. 01. The iron law of subsistence wage-levels marks the horizontal line of separation between the world of opulence and that of abundance. Economically-advanced countries tend to be poor abundancistically and underdeveloped countries tend to be poor in opulence that can only express itself by its streamlined bursting-balloon glory of emptiness.

7. 1. The ascending of wealth into the domain of symbolic credit and its descent to meet necessities and to exist again, stored in the form of potential trust, have to be visualized imaginatively before a programme of peace and prosperity could be spelt by finance ministers of any economic unit of a country or community.

7. 2. Roads and communications could by themselves be good as well as evil at the same time. Bandits as well as benefactors could enter protected areas by these means. Why should there be fortifications if easy communications are all for good?

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7. 3. Taxation, tariff walls and trust monopolies imply barriers of dubious value in world economics. Indirect taxation shares in profit unjustly, resulting in a state compromising its own prosperity or creating a unit within another unit, each countering the interests the other.

7. 4. A World Bank might be a name for an illegitimate monopoly of credit.

7. 5. Contraband traffic, cartels and created credit are signs of the times indicating a world economic crisis.

7. 51. The ascending pyramid of credit draws people upward into sterile domains of more and more getting and spending.

7. 6. Unemployment and leisure refer to the same state of affairs. One is hardly distinguishable from the other. When unitively treated both are good. Dualistically treated, both become separate problems, one accentuating the evil of the other.

7. 7. The honesty of limited liability is questionable.

7. 8. A simple breach of trust can be implied in coming off the gold standard when that was not understood in the beginning.

7. 9. Hard currency, key currency and other such terms which are given consideration, often affect the settlement of internal debts unfairly by bringing in artificial considerations or concessions that give the advantage to some and disadvantage to others.

8. Economic theories like that of population control end in dogmatisms that refuse to die, even when proved to be superstitions.

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8. 1. Celibacy is held up as a virtue or sign of holiness like Immaculate Conception within certain types of religious belief. The same aversion to procreation persists as family planning, when refracted through the orthodoxy of some Protestant sects whose priests are allowed to marry. Even scientists do not escape this influence and talk with a quasi-religious fervour when they speak of normal sex in men or women and the need for its control.

8. 2. Every decent textbook of economics devotes at least a paragraph to say that Malthusian ideas, which originated with priests, have long been disproved scientifically - but the idea persists and continues to haunt the minds of people who want to save nations. The fact that other intelligent nations like China and Russia pay mothers for adding to their population shows how opinion is based on mere false prudery or a sense of guilt or sin in sex. When Hitler employed this method of population control to exterminate races that he hated personally, as known through the Eichman evidence, why should it be over-suspicious to think that foreigners could use this against their enemies, actual or potential?

8. 3. Birds migrate; plants distribute their seeds far and wide to survive; but man is at his wit's end about living space for his progeny, when half the surface of the green earth is still vacant. Experts would make the common man believe that there is no standing space on the earth. Hundreds of thousands of acres are said by expert opinion, in the same newspapers at the same time, to be available to be given to the poor to cultivate, even in states like Kerala which is supposed to suffer from overpopulation. To think of killing future progeny to solve this problem that does not really exist can only be called suicidal madness.

8. 4. There is no good so precious as a young and growing human being, male or female. Let anyone challenge this statement.

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8. 5. When there is too much fish it is used as manure, but when too many humans are born they say no use could be found for them. No wonder sensitive persons have called economics a dismal science.

8. 6. Tariff walls, curtains, barriers and impediments by permits needed, by licenses and papers of all kinds, make of the world a prison house instead of a place for the common man to live freely and seek his normal happiness as a human being. The world is tending to resemble a big concentration camp. All wrong impediments must go. Slavery is not yet abolished. It persists more keenly in other forms.

8. 7. Bread and freedom must be guaranteed for happiness, both general and individual. The Bible must be at least as important for a sinner as a loaf of bread now. The former refers to a vertical need, which must be met in horizontal terms of everyday life. Bread without freedom and freedom without bread defeat the purpose of both and either. Economics has to be approached dialectically, not with a unilateral aim.

8. 8. Pure factors like credit and trust must translate themselves into actual benefits in everyday life by the contract of "all for one and one for all". The quantitative slogan, "the greatest good of the greatest number", would then be seen to be meaningless. Everybody should be considered his human brother's keeper.

8. 9. A sum of money could be spent in two different ways for the benefit of others - by fractional benefit to many and full benefit for a few. The calculation should be based on life-units' needs rather than mechanistically, as illustrated in the parable of the talents in the Bible. Funds of public bodies, often spent neither for individuals nor for humanity at large, tend to become absurd waste. The Kingdom of God could be interpreted economically as belonging to the regions here below, instead of the prevailing relativism, which introduces barriers of both time and space in respect of the benefits of life - barriers which should be replaced by absolute sharing in full generosity.

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10. 1. The highest form of co-operation is unlimited liability between the one and the many, understood dialectically. This will yield double gain where now double loss prevails.

10. 2. Money-centred scarcity economics cannot escape the nickname of mammon-worship that has been applied to it. The dismal science becomes lighted up with hope when the good of human beings is kept in mind. Topsy-turvy economics, by placing a wrong accent on human values, is to be avoided. The goal of economics determines its character, as a tree is known by its fruit.

10. 3. "From each according to his ability, to each according to his need" is a dialectical verity to be applied to economic theory more and more. Mechanistic and statistical approaches cannot accommodate this verity.

10. 4. The quadrants involved in economic life tend to make the science full of possibilities, probabilities and incertitudes. The science of economics must be restated dialectically, normatively and absolutely with the fourfold aspects of value cohering together in living terms.

10. 5. The hunger of one man, woman or child in the remotest corner of the world must concern all men at all times and all human resources must be applied to it. Such is the desideratum of One-World Economics.

10. 6. Putting up economic barriers against fellow men is a crime against humanity.

10. 7. Class distinctions spell sterility of wealth and its stagnation within stratifications in human society, which must be kept mixed and homogenous for economic health. Caste or race notions create complicated economic boxes one within another.

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10. 8. The honey in a beehive represents the surplus-value coming from an agreement between one bee and the whole hive.

11. Man and Humanity must be treated as dialectical counterparts if One-World Economics is to be a science, referring to the general good and the good of all at one and the same time.

APPENDIX
The items given in this article are to be treated as broad indications for showing the lines along which any future revision of economics on a One-World basis is to be envisaged in a complete treatise, which is largely the work for the future student. We give below (see page 145) some schematic representations with reference to items above. A general reference to the whole way of looking at economic theory is implied throughout.

STRUCTURAL DIAGRAMS

EDITORIAL NOTE

UNFORTUNATELY, WE DO NOT HAVE THE ORIGINAL MANUSCRIPT OF THIS WORK, ONLY A PRINTED EDITION, IN WHICH THE STRUCTURAL DIAGRAM IMMEDIATELY BELOW IS REPRODUCED. IT IS UNCLEAR AND CONFUSED, TO SAY THE LEAST.

WE HAVE TRIED TO UNSCRAMBLE IT AND MAKE THE VARIOUS COMPONENT DIAGRAMS MORE OR LESS CLEAR, WITH UNEQUAL SUCCESS.

THE REFERENCES, "CF...." , ARE TO THE LIST OF "BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ECONOMICS". SOME OF THEM APPEAR TO BE INCORRECT.

THE ORIGINAL PRINTED DIAGRAM IS REPRODUCED BELOW:

economics-p145a

THE ABOVE DIAGRAM HAS "CF. ITEM 4.5" NEXT TO IT, WHICH SEEMS CORRECT.

ABOVE, AND TO THE LEFT, IN THE ORIGINAL DIAGRAM, WE HAVE "CF. ITEMS 2.5, 3.5, 7.02" WHICH SEEM TO REFER TO THE DIAGRAM IMMEDIATELY BELOW.

THERE IS NO ITEM 3.5 OR 7.02. THERE IS A 7.2, WHICH DOES NOT SEEM TO BE RELEVANT, HOWEVER. 2.5 DOES APPEAR TO BE CORRECT.

NOTES

1. P. 163, Lee's Translation, Penguin.

2. P. 1, "Principles of Economics", 8th edn.

3. P. 38, "Ad Valorem".

4. P. 25, Prof. K.K. Dewett. "Modern Economic Theory". Punjab University

5. P. 13, Ibid.

6. P. 12, "Elements of Economics".

7. "Time", Sept. 15, 1961.

8. Ibid. February 17, 1961.

9. P. 426, "Elements of Economics", Thompson.

10. P. 122, "The Listener", July 27, 1961.

11. P. 372, "Anti Dühring", Engels.

12. P. 360, Ibid.

13. P. 384, Translated from the "Contrat Social", Editors, Garnier, Paris

14. Cf. "Ad Valorem" of Ruskin.

15. "Deccan Herald", 1st Oct. 1961, Bangalore

16. This difference has been fully explained in a monograph submitted to the Union Académique of Brussels by the present writer in the year 1960.

17. P. 555, "Capital" by Karl Marx. Vol. II, Everyman's Library, London

18. P. xi. Ibid. Vol. I.

19. P. 1, "The Age of Analysis", Mentor, New York 1956 20. p. 107, Ibid.

STRUCTURE P. 145

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12
PROTO-LINGUISTICS APPLIED TO ECONOMICS
A vertico-horizontal scheme of correlation based on the correlates of Descartes has been tacitly kept in mind or overtly referred to in many articles by the present writer on varied subjects. In economic thought, which is perhaps one which is most intricate, this same proto-linguistic or geometrical scheme could be advantageously employed. The following extracts taken from Ruskin's "Ad Valorem" lend themselves admirably to revealing the fact that even the best writers, besides Quesnay, Adam Smith, Engels and others on this elusive subject, have kept in their minds some tacit scheme of correlation, without knowledge of which most of what they wrote would remain closed to the common reader. After resorting to Greek Mythology and the Bible to aid him to express himself, Ruskin wrote in a language that could vie with the cryptic language of the Upanishads, as follows:

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"This being the nature of capital, it follows that there are two kinds of true production, always going in an Active State; one of seed and one of food; or production for the Ground, and for the Mouth; both of which are by covetous persons thought to be production only for the granary; whereas the function of the granary is but intermediate and conservative, fulfilled in distribution; else it ends in nothing but mildew and nourishment for rats and worms. And since production for the Ground is only useful with future hope of harvest, all essential production is for the Mouth; and is finally measured by the mouth, as I said above, consumption is the crown of production; and the wealth of a nation is only to be estimated by what it consumes." (1)

"So that, finally, I believe that nearly all labour may be shortly divided into positive and negative labour; positive that which produces life, negative, that which produces death; the most directly negative labour being murder and the most directly positive, the bearing and rearing of children: so that the precise degree in which murder is hateful on the negative side of idleness, in that exact degree child-rearing is admirable, on the positive side of idleness." (2)

"In all the ranges of human thought, I know none so melancholy as the speculations of political economists on the population question."(3)

"The general law, then, respecting just or economical exchange, is simply this: there must be advantage on both sides..."(4)

Such paragraphs could be multiplied. Textbook economics already admits the four-cornered game of economic activity with the land, labour, entrepreneur and capital keeping the four corners of the field. The famous "Tableau Economique" of Quesnay also presupposes such a scheme. The subtle difference between the price-value of a thing and its use-value is brought out by vague examples, such as the comparison between some yards of cloth and a coat, by Marx and others. One such example does not, however, make it a generally valid difference to be understood scientifically.

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Now, the four-cornered game of economic activity accepted by textbook writers could be viewed in two alternative ways: one in which brute factors like actual toiling and slave-driving are implied as the horizontal aspects (fig. 12.1a) and the land and capital theoretically considered as pure (vertical) aspects (fig. 12.1b.). The pure or the practical aspects could be given primacy by the economist, depending on whether he is of earth earthy, or accepts, like Ruskin, human values conducive to "life more abundant", instead of Mammon-worship. The difference is radical.

A simplified "Tableau Economique" as Quesnay might have proto-linguistically represented it, would be as given below (see fig. 12.2).

STRUCTURE FIG. 12.1

economics p149a

economics p149b

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Now if we try to clarify the subtle implications of the paragraphs we have taken from Ruskin with the help of the same proto-linguistic approach, we would get the following schematic representation for the item marked 266 (fig. 12.3) and item marked 256 (fig. 12.4).

economics p150 background

STRUCTURE FIG. 12.2

economics p150a

STRUCTURE FIG 12.2A

economicsp150b

STRUCTURE FIG 12.2B

economics p150 fig12.2c

STRUCTURE FIG.12.2C

economics p150 fig 12.2d

STRUCTURE FIG 12.2D

economics p151 fig12

STRUCTURE FIG. 12.3

economics p151 fig.12.4

STRUCTURE FIG. 12.4

NOTES

1. "Unto This Last", Item No. 266, see Fig. 12.3

2. Ibid., Item No. 256, see Fig. 12.4

3. Ibid., Item No. 279

4. Ibid., Item No. 241

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PART III
ONE-WORLD EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION
A gentleman is different from a boor. Education in the ordinary sense could be said to be what makes a gentleman out of a boor. The word 'education' itself comes from the Latin "ex" and "ducere" (to draw from, or out), and the more modern of educational theories today have insisted on this aspect of education. Classical notions of education are diametrically opposed to such modern ones, which thus believe in drawing out what is already present in the child, rather than in putting book-learning into him by lessons hard to learn, involving the tears and drudgery of classrooms. This change in perspective was ushered into existence by a bold man called Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who is sometimes referred to in encyclopaedias of education as the "Father of Modern Educational Theory".

In spite of such recognition given to him, with his picture appearing on the frontispiece of Monroe's "Encyclopaedia of Education", Rousseau's theories are still a closed book to many moderns. His "Emile" might be the Bible of educationists, but it contains too many enigmas, which have puzzled and continue to puzzle even such intelligent modern minds as H.G. Wells, who called Rousseau a hypochondriac who believed in shedding his sentimental tears into the Lac Léman of Geneva.

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Rousseau remains an enigma to modern educational authorities today, and his name hardly figures in the training courses of teachers at all. The modern teacher knows Montessori, Froebel and Pestalozzi. He understands the "project method" of John Dewey, and how the school and society have to be related organically according to the standards of what is called the "project-active" school based on a pragmatic socialized outlook. The study of nature is also understood by him to be important - not in itself, but because of its benefits to society. The Herbartian educational theory, savouring of post-Kantian speculation, is too theoretical and bookish to appeal to the minds of modern experimental educators. Even Herbert Spencer, as a naturalistic educator, and the ideas of John Locke, are considered as being outside the scope of education as understood in a pragmatic setting. One learns by doing; and play and work in the modern schoolroom have to go hand in hand, instead of being divorced from each other. It is here that Montessori, Pestalozzi and Froebel are still respected in the modern educational world. Otherwise, the humanities are generally seen to recede into the background in any syllabus of modern schools.

A ONE-SIDED APPROACH
Instead of programmes built around book-knowledge, as the humanities are bound to be, one hears of programmes based on interests and possible useful activities, commonly referred to under the designation 'project method'. "How does it work?" is a more important question than "in what philosophical light does one understand it?" That is the problem involved. Thus, the whole centre of gravity of modern education has drastically changed its position; there is little Latin and less Greek, while grammar and syntax have been thrown to the winds. Science has displaced the humanities, thus putting outside the pale of the normal education of a young man or woman of our generation all of those subjects in which human values are directly involved. Aesthetics, ethics, economics and education are subjects that are studied without any normative reference presupposed by them. Mill's utilitarianism could thus go hand in hand with this kind of approach, in which science and technocracy have a lopsided chance to enter the minds of young scholars or pupils, whether at college or high school.

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THE TRAGIC PARADOX
These processes, it is true, are conducive to the education of a citizen of a welfare state, or of one that has got to develop vast territories in order to build bridges or long tunnels or otherwise exploit the resources of a big country to the best advantage of the beneficiaries directly concerned. Thus, educational progress in its outward march goes from one technocratic victory to another, producing heroes interested in exploring other planets than our own, and forgetting values nearer home, residing within the self of man himself. A bomb gives power to a nation so that it could dominate and dictate to a neighbour, even if it does not do so openly. Armies are maintained and the stockpiling of armaments goes on, instead of the carrying out of the good intentions expressed at international conferences piously intending the golden day of world disarmament. Tensions mount up in the meanwhile, and cold wars, like subterranean fires, kill life by various forms of injustices that are not allowed to erupt into the open. Conflicting ideologies create situations far worse than in the days of the slavery that was supposed to have been abolished long ago. All this results from a tragic paradox hiding at the core of education itself.

This paradox can be stated in terms of the two standards revealed by the story by H.G. Wells about the great schoolmaster who fell dead while he was lecturing at Oundle School on the occasion of ceremonies there, over which Wells himself happened to be presiding. The conflict was clearly between the two mutually exclusive positions represented by the slogans, "Love thy neighbour as thyself", and "Britannia rules the waves". No educator, except perhaps Rousseau, ever faced this paradox squarely. He said that it is impossible to educate a citizen and a man at the same time. State educational systems are seen to shut their eyes to this obvious verity, and pretend ostrich-wise that it does not exist. Neither Montessori, nor Pestalozzi, nor Froebel is prepared to face this paradox with its tragic implications.

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Herein lies the basic drawback of modern education. One has to love Pakistan on the one hand, and watch millions of refugees suffer and starve on the other. This is what it amounts to. There is a helplessness here, which should only need to be proved once, yet still the educational policy-makers look on helplessly and suggest watered-down palliatives falling far short of curing the disease. The hand of God is revealed to no man, and there is no panacea for all ills. We can only travel from error to error, and those who say there is an absolute answer to such questions are derided in these days of scepticism, relativism, and the trial-and-error approach. Final answers are suspected of being dogmatic, as in the Middle Ages. "Down with the Absolute" is the modern slogan. "Let us invade the domain of knowledge piecemeal, and never try to storm the citadel wholesale"; such notions indicate the prevailing trend of modernism. It is no wonder then that Rousseau stands condemned as a sentimentalist and that his ideas sound strange to modern ears. He speaks, for example, of a form of negative education which holds that a child should be allowed to be a child before being a grown-up. Such a doctrine of negative education cannot be fitted easily into what gives meaning to education as understood in the West today. This is the reason why modern educators, as mentioned already, have nothing to say about the book "Emile". The paradox in education was faced by Rousseau; but the same paradox killed the great schoolmaster of Oundle by pulling his loyalties in opposite directions.

What we have to say, therefore, from the standpoint of One-World Education consists of recommending a fresh study of Rousseau to see how he is able to resolve the paradox and develop a theory of education in which its tragic implications are no more allowed to work havoc. Any theory of education must be capable of reconciling the two rival or conflicting positions of educating a citizen and a man at the same time. Such is the educational problem that confronts us in this book, for stating which we have just finished preliminarily clearing the ground.

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FOUR STAGES OF EDUCATION
Education is a process to be conceived of in terms of a lifetime. There is the education of childhood, the education of the adolescent and the adult, the education of the man of affairs, whether as a citizen or as a householder - and there is also finally the education that applies to a pensioner or a man who is thinking in terms of passing on from this life to the next. The child must not be deprived of play; the adolescent should not be deprived of the legitimate enjoyments of life proper to his age, including the pleasures of romance and love. The man of more mature years, when tried and weighed down by his responsibilities and worries, must be allowed some retirement and rest. And fourthly and finally, the man whose next event in life would consist in facing his own death has to find a more serious solution. Kalidasa in his "Raghuvamsa" refers to just these stages, which he visualizes under ideal conditions when he describes the citizens of King Dilipa's time as learning lessons in infancy; seeking pleasures in youth; practising austerities in advanced years; and finally learning to leave the body beautifully by the practice of Yoga.

These four divisions readily suggest to us four different types of education, which we could distinguish as:

(1) the Negative Education of Rousseau;
(2) the Naturalistic Education of Herbert Spencer;
(3) the Pragmatic or Socially Responsible Education of John Dewey for a man of middle age, combined with some contemplation proper to his age; and
(4) a programme of full-fledged Idealistic Education which covers spiritual disciplines such as Yoga.

Of the four broad divisions thus conceived, Negative Education would take us to the age of 14 or 15, varying only slightly in respect of a boy or a girl. Adolescence could cover the ages of 15 to 20, comprising the period of Naturalistic Education. From 20 to 45 could be called the period of practical social adjustment proper to Pragmatic Education. And finally, a fully contemplative discipline would apply from the age of 45 until death. Keeping these broad features in mind, it is thus possible to think in terms of four such stages of education in which we would expect variations, both in respect of the activities proper to men and women, as also in respect of the content of both theory and practice involved in each of the stages of the process.

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EDUCATION AS A BIPOLAR PROCESS
Here we have also to remember that education is a bipolar process. It always involves a relationship between the teacher and the taught, who are sometimes referred to as the educator and the educand, respectively. The personality of the educator is considered all-important to the process, which has sometimes been compared to an osmotic interchange of essences between a highly evolved personality called the Guru and the less evolved educand who is called the disciple. In certain countries, under certain prevailing theories of education, the personality of the educator is not given as much importance as in other traditions, philosophies or schools of thought. Adjusting the pupil to the needs of fitting into a society correctly does not involve the teacher's personality as directly as when Rousseau and Emile consider themselves inseparable. In advanced years, when a man is engaged in problems of life beyond death, the guidance of a spiritual teacher or Guru comes into the picture again more imperatively. In Naturalistic Education, the open book of nature itself could be treated as the education, as one of the counterparts of a dialectical process. The workshop or the project in Pragmatic Education need not necessarily involve respect for a personal teacher, because hydrogen and oxygen can be shown to combine to make water, irrespective of whether the student loves or respects the teacher or not. Thus, the bipolar process called education has to be studied in all its phases and aspects as it progresses through the broad stages that we have indicated, and each phase has its own type of bipolar process to be imagined as proper to it. The education of a woman has to differ drastically from that of a man, because of the different functions they have to fulfil in their lives. It is always the personality of the pupil that has to be given primacy in the forming of any educational theory. Furthermore, the interaction between teacher and taught has to be secured and maintained as a constant and uniform one so that the process could develop or unravel harmoniously throughout life, and more especially

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during the stages that we have tried to distinguish above as the Negative and the Idealistic, marking the first and the last of the four broad divisions.

CONCLUSION
Such are some of the guidelines which are suggested here for us to formulate a One-World Education. We know of no other textbook which satisfies these basic requirements than Rousseau's "Emile". Other precious indications can be found in works such as those of Kalidasa. Education and economics and ethics are all presented in a blended form in various parts of his works, whether poetic, lyric, epic or heroic. To glean educational theory from them would require detailed research into them which we cannot undertake here, inasmuch as these remarks are merely meant to be broad guiding considerations for the time being.

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14
WORLD EDUCATION MANIFESTO

Human problems are many. Most of them concern individuals. There are also total problems facing humanity as a whole. Nowadays it is an accepted dictum that "wars begin in the minds of men". It is also well realized now that modern war is a menace to humanity. To avoid this great danger, or at least to meet it with intelligent certitude, the answer lies in a whole-hearted and thoroughgoing love of fellow men and a reliance on Absolutist Wisdom. When we take it for granted that the atom bomb is not in keeping with the dignity or destiny of mankind, education conceived in terms of a whole lifetime and as applying to the whole of humanity at once, is the only factor with which to counter this ever-staring disaster which threatens the race.

The educator has the pupil or the child as his only tool, or rather counterpart, with which he is to accomplish this great task of saving humanity and securing its peace and happiness. With this tender and formative factor, sometimes for convenience called the educand, the person of mature age or understanding, called the educator, has to enter into a fruitful relationship in the continued process called education. The two persons involved are the dialectical counterparts of an educational situation.

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The individual personality of the educand has to be influenced by an education that is compatible with his age, sex, stage or type. The innate tendencies in the educand have to be adjusted progressively through the process so as to unfold his potentialities as fully as possible, so that throughout the process and in later life, he can play the happy role of a member of the human family, and thus contribute to the general happiness of mankind. Whether this goal is stated as peace on earth and goodwill to men; or in more religious terminology as the whole-hearted love of God and one's own neighbour; or in terms of social order as well-being in a workaday sense; whether conceived as a political ideal for world citizenship in the world of tomorrow; or even as the will to power of the idealist - the universal and human basis of education that should prepare him to lead a better life, with which we are concerned in this manifesto, must remain the same.

THE BIPOLAR RELATION
If the intervention of the educator in the natural unfolding of the personality of the educand is to be successful, it is necessary to establish scientifically correct educational relations between the two persons involved. Here the understanding of the personal factor and the laws that underlie the bipolar relation are matters of primal importance. The educator in his own person represents the second pole by virtue of which the various subjects, the relational, emotional or environmental factors that might confront the educand in the process, have to be eliminated or selected, graded or regulated and presented to him without any violation of the bipolar character of the process. This condition has to go on unhindered and harmoniously for many years before education can have any tangible effect. The educator has to adjust himself to every kind of educational contingency that might arise, in which he might have to play many a role, initiate many orbits of interest or activity, improvise many an experimental or educative situation, and stimulate intellectual interests in the pupil in many desirable and natural directions.

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THE PERSONAL FACTOR AND WORLD HAPPINESS
In other words, the two persons have to be treated as belonging together to a dialectical situation in which both the counterparts are of equal importance. The science of education has therefore to be conceived, not only along living or organic lines, but also in dialectically-conceived terms. The prevailing mechanistic approach, although called "scientific" because of its use of instruments, measurements and even experiments, has ended in a sterile accumulation of impersonal quantitative data and statistics, which leave the personality totally outside the discussion. Educators even avoid references to the personal factor, and if they do so at all it is to include, perhaps apologetically, a last paragraph on the subject. Thus important human values, not to speak of higher ones, are glaringly omitted from any programme of education. The present manifesto is an attempt to present the case for an education which would help to enhance the value of the person along scientific, open and dynamic lines without closed or static dogmatisms. Localized traditions or closed cults are here discredited. A classless and casteless humanity without frontiers or barriers made by traditional ideas, however superior in themselves, is kept in mind here. Further, the personal factor involved here in this living bipolar process of educational adjustment is to be a central or absolute concept or entity envisaged for developing the theme and thesis of this manifesto systematically and methodically. This manifesto is further conceived as a universal or world manifesto because the high hope that the peace and happiness of mankind should be the primary concern of any programme of education worth the name, whether individual or collective.

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I
SECTION 1: GENERAL

THE NEED FOR A NEW MANIFESTO

When organisations such as the UNESCO are in the field, it is legitimate to ask the question why there should be need for a manifesto of this kind. The reasons are:

FIRSTLY: That the programmes of the UNESCO are based on the recognition of the present set-up of sovereign states, each with its own closed pattern of cultural or citizenship values, not properly conceived on any human or one-world basis. In respecting the wishes of member-nations and not encroaching on their sovereignty, the UNESCO has to be very careful not to draw any loyalty to itself in any absolute sense. At best it can gather statistics, act as a clearing-house for information, and promote over-all literacy under what is called a programme of "fundamental education", which term, vague as it is, has been recently described in a UNESCO publication (1) as in effect merely "the educational arm of social and economic development".

Community projects and the training of leaders in rural areas figure prominently in the programmes of this body. It is not easy to see how the humming beehive-like secretariat with its pilot projects, the gathering of educational data, and the compilation of international educational statistics from dry governmental reports coming in from the numerous member-states, large or small, can effectively include within its scope in a practical or tangible sense, personal or human values which would make at least one human a better man. It is true that some cultural publications are attempted, and the fostering of international understanding, made at the level of a college debating society or get-together party, is also sometimes included in UNESCO programmes. It is not hard to discover that the millions of dollars spent by the organization are lost in the sands of such works as surveys which hardly interest anybody, or in works mostly consisting of the typing, translating, collecting, collating or clearing of information on a world-wide scale, or sometimes on items of travelling or on conferences in far-flung parts of the globe.

The International Bureau of Education which had been doing the same kind of work since the days of the League of Nations has now been largely absorbed into the UNESCO, but the same work now goes on in Paris in a slightly more glorified or outwardly-streamlined form.

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How the individual educand in a personal sense could ever be reached or influenced by all this peripheral paraphernalia which leaves him outside its close scrutiny; and how it can help in the making of a better man or even a better citizen in a human or world sense, remains a puzzle.

SECONDLY: The fact that the UNESCO takes for granted rival citizenships, endangers, besides compromising, the role of that body as an effective world organization. The United Nations Organization itself, of which the UNESCO is but a limb, can only hoist the flags of individual sovereign states under or alongside its own flag. Although such spectacular and symbolic acts might have a very indirect educative value, the status of the UNO remains at a very impotent, dull and relativistic level. How much more inferior is the status of the UNESCO, which can do little more than arrange exhibitions or shows or imposing assemblies at which rival power-groups and their satellites get a good chance to sling mud at each other on its well-equipped and publicised platforms. There is further the constant danger in the surcharged atmosphere of these assemblies - which have no tangible common goal to draw together a united loyalty - of cold wars being fanned at any moment into hot flames, when war-minded men are made to sit side by side at the same desk or table.

THE REASON FOR ITS FAILURE:
Education is often defined as meant for citizenship. If two rival citizenships are imagined without any middle ground between them, war clouds can find in this situation ever-favourable conditions to rise and spread at a minute's notice.

The way out of this difficulty is a secret of the dialectician. Mere logical reason can never attain to the root of the problem, much less solve it. The really wise men of the world, who at any given time can scarcely be found, might hold this secret; but such could never hope to get a hearing at these loud assemblies which are conceived, as it were, from the peripheral rather than from the central point of view. The problem of education for peace in the field of world education has to be envisaged from an altogether opposing angle than the one from which it has so far been approached by these world bodies.

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Even with an amended constitution, such bodies can never be expected to cope with the task of preparing humanity for peace, because of their origin and their intrinsic nature.

THE CONTRADICTION AT THE CORE OF THE PROBLEM ITSELF
The raison d'être of this manifesto and its ample justification will become evident when we recognize that there is a subtler philosophical contradiction lurking at the very core of the problem of education. Little attention has been paid to this, even by leaders of educational thought. Training colleges go on teaching the theory and practice of education decade after decade, paying no attention to this - which effectively compromises all programmes of state education. The future of education itself must remain sombre until the time when this secret of a philosophical or contemplative order becomes sufficiently understood. Why this verity has so far remained unrecognised in education is because involved in it is a paradoxical conflict of basic principles of human nature.

Rousseau was laughed at for his paradoxes. Yet, although he was much misunderstood and maligned, he still enjoys the recognized position of the father of modern educational thought. Rousseau himself is a puzzle to moderns who have forgotten the idiom in which he wrote. In his classical treatise, "Emile", which is devoted to education, he puts his finger right on this very contradiction and states it as strikingly as possible when he writes:

"Forced to combat Nature or social institutions, one has to make a choice between making a man or a citizen; for one cannot make the one and the other at the same time". (Book I)

A citizen or patriot is obliged to protect the frontier of any political unit he may belong to. He has to kill or die - an imperative necessity which even a contemplative such as Socrates could not escape from. In modern days necessity of this kind becomes more binding than ever.

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Only under very special conditions may a conscientious objector be tolerated. The generality of men are just citizens for wartime, and are mostly treated in the educational world to be so, if not already so. The hereditary and religious attachments that an ordinary person might have, also make him in many cases willing to die for "the ashes of his fathers and the temples of his gods", as stated in an old ballad. Nelson, that model hero for English schoolboys, applied the telescope to his blind eye when he was told to retire from the battle. His motto: "England expects every man will do his duty" pertains to the same closed context.
In one of his books devoted to education, H.G. Wells describes the conflict which very much troubled - and perhaps indirectly caused the sudden death of - a martyr to the cause of education, Sanderson of Oundle. In "The Great Schoolmaster", Wells describes the last speech made by this sensitive and conscientious educator who wished to be true to English tradition and cultivate patriotism in his pupils by making them sing "Rule Britannia". He also had to cultivate in the Sunday school hours and at those periods set aside for religious lessons, that other attitude implied in the biblical words, "Love thy neighbour as thyself". The story - which actually happened -records how, while on a school anniversary day, all was happy and gay, with Wells himself presiding, when the poor schoolmaster, who was making a spirited speech on the subject of this very contradiction, collapsed while the above-mentioned contradictory phrases were hardly out of his mouth, and he had hardly said 'Amen' to "Love thy neighbour as thyself" - thus became forever a martyr to the cause of true human education.

A later philosopher than Rousseau - one who perhaps had a slightly better reception than Rousseau by the Western world - reiterated the same implicit contradiction lurking at the core of our ideas of a philosophical nature, pertaining to the growth and development of the personality or consciousness of man.

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Bergson wrote:

"…since the time of Aristotle, and which has vitiated the greater part of the philosophy of Nature, is to see in vegetative life, in instinctive life, and in the life that is based on reason, three successive degrees of the same tendency that developed itself, while they are three divergent directions of one and the same activity which took by itself many divergent directions in the process of growing up". (2)

The Indian philosopher, Sankara, also refers to this inner philosophical contradiction which touches the human spirit when treating of the impossibility of attaining salvation by combining knowledge (jnana) and works (karma). In his commentary on the Gita he wrote:

"The conclusion, therefore, of the Bhagavad Gita is that salvation is attained by knowledge alone and not by knowledge conjoined by works". (3)

MODERN EDUCATIONAL ENDEAVOUR

UNESCO AGAIN
If we refer again to the UNESCO, it is just to point out that even when we take a closer look at the work of that body, we find that there is no serious educational theory implied in it. The same already-quoted publication admits more glaringly the empty and peripherally-dissipated content of its own work when we read from the preface the following:

"Readers of educational abstracts are familiar with the term 'fundamental education' used by the UNESCO to designate educational activities which aim to help people to take an active part in the social and economic development of their communities. The term is now widely used in many countries, though the forms of educational activity which it describes and the subject-matter of its 'teaching' vary considerably with differences in the local needs and conditions.

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Again the term itself is not an exclusive one and some countries have adopted a different terminology - such as 'social education', 'mass education', and 'community education', to describe similar activities. 'Fundamental Education' has been recently described as the educational arm of social and economic development."

When we notice that the word 'teaching' in the above quotation is put by the writer himself (or herself) in quotes, and take into account the grave implication of the last part of the quotation which we have underlined, it is quite safe to say that, by the admission of its own sponsors, the UNESCO has no educational content or message worth the name, and that it does not actually deliver the goods which it is under contract, as it were, to deliver to the people of the world. The same applies to many great educational establishments, such as some of the important universities, especially of America, whose legal validity and honesty have recently been questioned and challenged by young men who have become alive to the sad defeat of true education in them.

THE NEW EDUCATION MOVEMENT
If we turn to other educational endeavours of our times we have the New Education Movement or Fellowship of Europe, which has spread to the New World also. The epicentre of this movement is Geneva, that famous international city where the spirit of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the unique 'citizen of Geneva', may be said to be still presiding. We have said already that Rousseau is still recognized as the father of modern educational thought, for which his inclusion as such in the "Cyclopaedia of Education" of Monroe is sufficient evidence. Rousseau himself may be said to be the inspirer of the New Education Movement which started in the same city. It would therefore be but natural for us here to hearken back to Rousseau in our effort to place ourselves correctly in relation to the educational trends of our time so as to be able to relate this manifesto to its own natural background or starting point.

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MISTRUST IN THE FATHER OF MODERN EDUCATION
Although the mortal remains of Rousseau were removed to the Panthéon in Paris one hundred years after his miserable and lonely death as a hunted and persecuted person, his name is still lingering in the charming lakeside city of Geneva. His much-misunderstood or ill-understood theories act still as an anathema to the orthodox, not only of religion, but even of politics and education. Rousseau is still a dear yet puzzling enigma to Europeans generally. Yet they cannot do without him either. They neither accept him nor reject him totally. As an original thinker and a contemplative of high stature, his name stands out more prominently than any other single name in the history of modern thought. What is called modernism may be said to have been ushered into being and given its dialectically revalued character by him, together with his contemporary and spiritual or intellectual counterpart, Voltaire, as a few of the modern intelligentsia can still recognize.

Rousseau has remained a puzzle even to those who should have been naturally disposed to give him recognition. Even Frenchmen of high academic status have misjudged him, not to mention persons like H.G. Wells, who, in his "Outline of History" lightly brushes him aside as a sentimentalist of no importance. It is interesting to note that the general editor in a footnote has taken care to pull up Wells on this point. Even Henri Legrand of the University of Paris, who presents the Larousse edition of "Emile", in his prefatory note on this work of Rousseau admits his confusion when he says, "One finds oneself confusedly troubled with what one meets with, by all that is old-fashioned, the naive and the baroque" in the book. He adds further, "Emile is far from us... this is true, for it contains the greater part of the illusions and paradoxes of Rousseau" (p. 6).

DEVELOPMENTS IN EUROPE AFTER ROUSSEAU
Rousseau's views on education influenced others who could follow only in a general way the sense of the trail he marked out for them.

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The deeper dialectical secrets of Rousseau, though still interesting to them, eluded their grasp. Pestalozzi, Froebel, Loyola, Montessori and Decroly are some of the names that have come down to our times after Rousseau.

They approached education from the active experimental angle, in which a programme of education began to be conceived on the basis of interest rather than in terms of bookish subject-matter. Education was concerned with drawing out what was in the child rather than in driving in. The child begins hereafter to be given more importance than the teacher. The heuristic method of Herbart insists that the teacher should not tell the answers to questions in the classroom in advance, but somehow try to elicit them patiently from the child; and that the old knowledge in the child has to have the new grafted on by the principle of apperception. The child has to be left free for play and activities. Occupations interesting and natural to the child have to be provided for. Rousseau, though not his followers, even provided for a negative stage in education, when the pupil was not expected to learn anything at all, but just be a child first before becoming an adult. The child with Rousseau was to be brought up in isolation and loneliness under the guidance of a single governor, without being interfered with by any outside or extraneous social influences. He spoke of three main kinds of education: that which belonged to Nature, which could well be left alone; that which belonged to things, with which the educator could not do much even if he wanted to; and the education that man could give, where the full role of the personal factor as a bipolar relation was recognized by him. When Rousseau went so far as to recognize the personal factor in this dialectically scientific manner, he became a puzzle to his followers, and they began to leave him alone. Private education thus had to part company with public education.

IMPERSONAL PUBLIC STANDARDS IN EDUCATION
Education on a general scale is the responsibility of governments, and the position from which governments may be expected to look upon this problem must necessarily be a standardised, impersonal and public one.

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This is the reason why, in spite of the profound impression that Rousseau made in the world of educational thought, he was coldly left behind after some years. Governments were more interested in making the cannon fodder called the true patriot or the citizen; and whatever else it wanted to make of the educand was only of secondary importance to it. The phenomenon that we have been watching in recent times, of the rapid popularity that Montessori gained in the educational world, is to be explained by the fact that here for the first time the tiny tots who were the educands had something conceived along modern lines for their education. Paedocentricity, activity, freedom from interference, non-bookishness; experimental material based on the natural interests of the child, rather than subjects to be taught compulsorily; letting the child be a child first before becoming an adult - these were features which came from the new orientation given to education of which Rousseau himself was the initiator. As a result, the Montessori method was recommended and promoted by one modern state after another. Although merely consisting of sense-training, the Montessori method may be said to have stumbled into this popularity by dint of Montessori's original attempts merely to correct defective children whose senses functioned inadequately. The scientific aspects of her method later became adapted so as to include the infant who was more normally human in endowments. Still, some of the roundabout artificialities of the method which have come from its abnormal origin could be discovered as lingering on in the Montessori Method as it is put into practice at the present-day, even in its revised form.

THE DECLARATION OF GENEVA
Rousseau's home city again comes into the story of world education in the famous Declaration of Geneva promulgated by the now forgotten League of Nations. This was meant to guarantee the freedom and protection of the child in the world of free human rights.

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It was a kind of Magna Carta born in the minds of some educators who were also leaders of thought in that interesting European Rousseau-city which enjoyed the admiration and respect of President Wilson of the U.S.A., who was instrumental in choosing it as the home of the League of Nations. There to the present-day the Eastern or Western pilgrim can visit the "Ile Rousseau" at the heart of the city near the Quay Wilson, dominated by the more-than-life-size bronze statue of Rousseau, surrounded by tall poplars and accessible by a causeway. The "Citizen of Geneva", as he is called on the pedestal inscription, lives on by reputation and continues to puzzle and thus add a new dimension to the atmosphere of this city situated at the very heart of Europe. The Declaration of Geneva is but an expression of the all-embracing spirit of Rousseau, who may be said to be the latest of modern dialectical philosophers - not yet fully understood in the West, but whom the East is likely one day to rediscover and possibly even respect as a world-teacher.

ROUSSEAU, MORE THAN A MERE MODERN THINKER OR EDUCATOR
Rousseau was a contemplative and dialectical philosopher who could view education for the first time from the standpoint of the science of dialectics, which is still a vague term to most modern intellectuals. He had more than paedocentricity, activity or freedom to contribute to education. By being a contemplative, he is not to be looked upon as belonging to the Age of Reason on a par with his contemporary, Voltaire, who often mocked him in his writings. Rousseau must be included among the contemplative perennial philosophers who transcend their own epoch and the geographical region where their influence was first felt. While Prof. Legrand, whom we have already quoted as introducing "Emile", strangely mistrusts Rousseau when he says,

"Emile is far removed from us, because it contains some of the errors and manias common to people of his age".

He is seen soon almost to contradict himself when he continues,

"In appraising in its wholeness the spirit that animates the book, we are able to see hazily something that is profound which agrees singularly with our modern soul".

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From such contradictions and from the very fact that the modern educator is unable to shake off the profound impression that Rousseau has succeeded in making on him, however much he might seem to disown him or be ashamed of him on specific items of educational doctrine; there is no doubt that the dialectically-revalued notions of Rousseau are the soundest ones available in the Western world for the erection of the superstructure which we envisage in this manifesto for World Education.

THE DIALECTICAL IDIOM OF ROUSSEAU
The idiom of dialectics has become forgotten in world literature. Paradox is of the very stuff of this dialectical way, because it is in paradox or in dilemma that human conflicts and problems make themselves evident in everyday life. Life has the ever-staring question, "To be or not to be". What is mistaken for being old-fashioned or naive in Rousseau by the best of trained thinkers really belongs to the natural and inevitable style of the timeless contemplative way of higher wisdom. This is referred to as "yoga" in the Bhagavad Gita (IV. 2), which Krishna as the teacher in this contemplative textbook of dialectics, himself deplores as a precious heritage tending to be lost again and again in the world. (4)

THE J.J. ROUSSEAU INSTITUTE
Following in the footsteps of Rousseau, it was right that some leading educationalists of Europe established at the beginning of this century a Rousseau Institute of Education at Geneva. This is also alternatively named "The Institute of Educational Sciences". This Institute, although it was the mother of the International Bureau of Education which in its turn, has culminated in UNESCO, with which it is organically linked at present, as we have already noticed, is now receding into the background in favour of those peripherally-conceived items of educational endeavour that can no more be said to have any tangible value in the context of World Education, as pointed out above.

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Educational endeavour has therefore to be given a fresh start and impetus, and this is what this manifesto represents. The sterile sands of mass education have all but absorbed the nourishing waters of educational effort, and it is time that educators the world over rallied to retrieve the cause. The hour for a manifesto of this kind is therefore now upon us.

FRESH BREEZES FROM THE EAST
Western civilization has all but forgotten its contemplative idiom. From the days of the discovery of the telescope, technical advances through the conquests of science have overpowered the normal imagination of the Western mind. What it might have contributed to human happiness, mainly in the form of human comforts, has been taken away on the other hand by its trail of smoke and gas. Obsessed by pride or confusion, the common man has no clear training in the appreciation of normal or natural human values in everyday life, not to speak of moral, spiritual or contemplative life. All goodness or kindness has been ruled out by him as sentimental and uncritical dogmatism or blind faith.

Rousseau became outmoded because, as a proud European, he was still capable of shedding tears into his favourite Lac Léman without any apparent reason whatsoever. He loved the lake and that was all. He came to be laughed at and was bypassed by the rest of his own people who took pride in their status as men of reason and not sentimental sissies. That extra dose of humanity which they found in the "Citizen of Geneva" was too much for them to understand. There is, however, a small group, even in the West, who are able to recognize in Rousseau a first-rate contemplative philosopher and world citizen, in spite of his personal so-called shortcomings which have become cheap subjects of derision directed against him by the common ill-educated man or woman. Rousseau's neglect of his own children was enough to turn their minds against him, without taking into account the pelting and persecution that his own people made him suffer. We would not be considered far from the truth if we should generalise about the small group we have referred to and say that they represent people of an eastern outlook living in a Western clime.

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The cold wind known as the "bise" in Geneva can freeze or numb all of man's tender emotions. The tender and sensitive plant that was Rousseau's spirit could not thrive in that harsh climate. Eastern breezes may still raise and revive his noble soul and rediscover him as the cause of an educational programme which knows no distinction of East or West, North or South. A pilgrimage to the Ile Rousseau, surrounded by its greenish lake and the white and black swans ever-swimming round his statue, would not be a bad idea to be undertaken by eastern lovers of contemplation when they visit Europe. Let them sit for a change and meditate a while under the tall poplars.

ROUSSEAU'S ABSOLUTIST CONCEPT OF NATURE
What Rousseau is never tired of calling "Nature" should not be confounded, as has often been done, with the word "nature" as used in such expressions as "the return to nature" or "a nature poet". Outside nature is one thing, but Nature with a capital letter, conceived synthetically as an absolute inner principle which gives us notions of right and wrong, and which is the basis of conscience, or an axis of reference in the educational, moral and spiritual progression of man towards his high goal, belongs to quite another order. According to Rousseau, who refers all education, except social adjustments in a practical utilitarian sense, to this innate and imperative urge called Nature; it is more than just habit cultivated during a lifetime. Nature should fall in line with Nature if it is to be good, and Nature itself should be thought of as transcending the limitations of life here and now, reaching into the past or future and giving a direction and purpose to life, in a teleological as well as an ontological sense. Natural inclinations like the verticality of a plant, which rights itself even when tilted from its original natural position and placed at a more horizontal angle, is the favourite example that Rousseau cites to show there is an innate sense of goodness, rightness or justice rooted timelessly within the human spirit. The positive content of the term "Nature" as intended by him is brought out into relief when in a certain section of "Emile" he elaborates spiritual life under what is called Natural Religion, in his "Profession of Faith of a Savoy Vicar".

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ROUSSEAU AND SOCIAL EDUCATION
It is true that the question of social adjustment in education finds little favour in the educational programme envisaged by Rousseau. This is neither an omission nor a prejudice. As with the philosophers of India, the world of men, sometimes referred to as the 'madding crowd' by poets, is a factor to be avoided rather than included in any sane programme of education based on contemplative principles. Desire (kama) and anger (krodha) arise from the rivalries of men, and these evils, which when taken together with miserliness (lobha), are referred to as belonging to the triune portals of hell in the Gita, (5), stem out of the penchant for activity (rajas) - especially competitive activity which, in the struggle for existence, the world of man necessarily implies. Love of social life (loka vasana) is a thing to be avoided by the spiritual aspirant, even according to the teachings of Sankaracharya in his "Vivekachudamani". While philosophers like Dewey have stressed utilitarian and pragmatic social adjustment by education, Rousseau has remained more truly a contemplative idealist, loyal to his ideas of goodness and Nature, which represented to him high absolutist values in life, and which were very precious for man. He was interested in gaining the soul, even at the loss of the whole world.

ROUSSEAU'S NEGATIVE EDUCATION
Rousseau is bold enough in this direction to lay down the law that should regulate the earliest years of the educand. He says it has to be 'negative' in character. The implications of this doctrine of negative education is none other than what is known as the "nivritti marga" or the "via negativa" that has been known to Vedanta in India and to pre-Socratic philosophers in the West. Outgoing action, whose tendencies are characterized as "rajasik", is an evil which, however, has to be respected only insofar as it is inevitable or necessary.

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"Sufficient unto the day is the evil thereof", is the dictum that holds good here, and the Gita doctrine of "niskama karma" or dispassionate action, which has confused even Indian thinkers, is nothing more than an intelligent and intuitive dialectical way of not getting trapped by the horizontal interests in life which spell activity, attachment, and consequent tension. Negative education consists in bringing up the child protected from the evils of society, like a young plant that is fenced in and protected from passers-by. The child is to be brought up in solitude, as in the forest schools of India of ancient times. He has to be guided by a single teacher who would regulate, interpret, select or prepare favourable educational conditions where nature would have a full chance to assert itself in the child, till it attained to full manhood or womanhood. Rousseau's Nature would correspond to the "categorical imperative" of Kant and to the creative "élan vital" of Bergson.

The whole process is maintained in the direction of natural goodness by a teacher who represents in himself the same principle. In Rousseau we see that for the first time education is considered as a bipolar process between a preceptor and a disciple, as with the Guru and sisya understood in ancient Indian education. Nature with Rousseau is thus nothing other than what is good in human nature. What we have done in this manifesto is just to give a more correct name to this very human nature, giving it its proper status according to a science of the Absolute, as a notion common to the educator and the educand at once, in the process of education. This common basis of educational relations we have named for scientific correctness "the personal factor" in education. (6)

THE ECHO OF TIME-HONOURED INDIAN CONCEPTS
Rousseau writes, "For being well-conducted, the infant should follow but one single guide". (7) Again, he emphasizes the strict bipolarity to be secured between teacher and taught in education, in referring to his educational relations with the pupil, Emile, in the following words:

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"Emile is an orphan. It is not important that he should have his mother or father. Entrusted with their duties, I succeed to their rights...and I would even wish that the pupil and the governor should regard themselves as such inseparables that the passing of their days should be with them always with a common object." (8)

The ancient Indian idea of the relations between a Guru and sisya are here echoed unmistakably. In the education which we have touched upon as negative, as with Rousseau, the pupil is to be protected from the glare and pomp that society offers. Not only the infant but even the adolescent has to be so protected, as we read in Book V of "Emile". This noble passage is as follows:

"Would you like, therefore, to initiate and nourish in the heart of a young man the first movements of a nascent sensibility and turn his character towards a beneficial life and to bounty? Then do not allow to germinate in him pride, vanity, envy, by the misguiding picture of the happiness of men; do not expose at first sight before his eyes the pomp of courts and the feasts of palaces, the attraction of spectacles; do not make him promenade in social circles and in brilliant assemblies; do not show him the exterior of high life in society before he is in a state capable of appreciating it in itself. To show him the world before he understands humans; that would not be forming him, it would be to corrupt him; that would not be to instruct him, but to misguide him."

It is not hard to notice how close a family resemblance this passage bears to what the ancient Indian educator conceived as the life of the Brahmacharin (the initiate in the way of Brahman or the Absolute) in a Gurukula, a forest school where teacher and pupils lived together.

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SOLITARINESS
The cheap fling at Rousseau is that he conceived of education in anti-social terms. This is because he lauded solitude for man, as conducive to happiness. In Emile, Book IV, he wrote:

"A being who is truly happy is a being who is solitary. God alone enjoys a happiness that is Absolute"

When the Bhagavad Gita, VI. 10 reads,

"The yogi remaining in a lonely spot by himself should constantly engage in yoga secretly, with his relational mind subdued and free from expectant waiting and greed",

the contemplative pattern of life common to East and West alike is unmistakably reflected. From the day when he submitted an essay on the corruption implied in the arts and sciences to the University of Dijon in 1750, Rousseau never tired of attacking the evils of western civilization, as we understand them in their vastly amplified aspects at the present-day. Rousseau was a champion of those human values which are deep-seated in the human heart. The mystical note in Rousseau attains to sublimity when he puts the following words in the mouth of the Savoy Vicar:

"For elevating myself as far as I could to this state of happiness, of strength and of freedom, I exercise myself at sublime contemplation. I meditate on the order of the universe, not for explaining it by vain systems, but for admiring it endlessly, for adoring that wise Author who makes His presence felt therein... 0 God that is kind and good, in my confidence in Thee the supreme wish of my heart is that Thy will should be done. In joining my will with it, I do what Thou doest. I submit to Thy bounty, I believe that I partake in advance of that supreme felicity which is its prize."

The correct contemplatively mystical pattern, with a gentle touch of ecstasy and the advaitic (non-dualistic) note revealed in the part underlined by us in the above quotation, is sufficient to reveal the personality of Rousseau as a yogi or a Guru, or even as a solitary recluse or "muni", as we understand them in the context of Indian spirituality.

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He could not have been less of a true Christian or a true Brahmin because of these traits in his personality. While Rousseau's statue sits neglected on the little island we have pictured, regarded askance by proud moderns, he might one day be garlanded or offered incense, flowers, water and fruit by some Indian devotee if such a one should come to recognize his status as a "jagadguru" or World Teacher. Rousseau would surely have felt more at home among the mystics and saints of India rather than in the cold climate of Europe, except perhaps in the early spring, when the Nature he loved would adore him in response. Rousseau's personality and message has to be rediscovered at least in the cause of World Education. Rousseau's catholicity of outlook even in religion is reflected in the following quotation:

"I regard all the particular religions as so many salutary institutions which prescribe in each country a uniform way of honouring God by a public form of worship, all of which could have their reasons for being so in the climate, in the government and in the genius of the people, or in some other cause of a local order which would render one preferable to the other according to the time and place. I believe all of them to be good when they are able to serve God by them in a convenient manner. The essential worship is that of the heart. God has no regret about any homage paid to Him when it is sincere, under whatever form it may be offered to Him." (9)

The Bhagavad Gita, which says that "all humanity treads the very path that is Mine" (IV. 11), reiterates this same verity, as also the motto of the Guru Narayana, "One religion and one God for all Mankind".

ROUSSEAU AND GURUKULA EDUCATION
Quotations could be multiplied to show that Indian doctrines of education such as "gurukula vasa" (living away from society under a single Guru), guru-bhakti (maintaining a strict bipolar relation with the teacher), brahmacharya (walking in the absolutist light of Nature or Goodness) and other related concepts, such as dhyana (meditation) and yoga contemplation), when understood shorn of any local coloration or exaggeration that might stick to them, follow on the best lines of thought opened out to the modern world by Rousseau, who describes himself simply as "un ami de la vérité" - a friend of truth.

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THE IMPORTANCE OF CORRECT NOTIONS ABOUT THE EDUCAND
In his own preface to the first edition of "Emile", published at The Hague in 1762, Rousseau says:

"One does not understand the child ... Commence, therefore, by studying better your pupil, for very assuredly you do not understand him".

Here he rightly touches on the central problem of all education. Again, in "Emile", Book V, he insists:

"Let us understand first of all what she (Sophie) consists of and we shall then be able to judge better where she lives".

Here it is implied that the objective environment of Sophie has to be understood together with understanding her. The dialectical or contemplative way has to treat these counterparts together when they belong to the same factor or situation. In his section on religious education he repeats:

"Begin therefore by studying human nature and what is most inevitably present in it, which constitutes what is best in humanity".

Here he refers to the knowledge of the generic or collective personality of humanity taken as a whole. When he comes again in Book IV to the discussion of notions of human justice he says:

"Here now, is the study which is important for us; but to do so properly one has to begin by understanding the human heart".

These are various possible perspectives or views of the personal factor in education. They have all to be included in a synthetic picture of the personality in which the educator and the educand - the educational counterparts of a given situation, could be discussed at one and the same time, by the help of a central concept of the factor which is common to all phases, aspects, types or environmental patterns involved in education, as a complete life process both collectively and individually understood.

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We shall put the punctuation mark here at the end of this first part of the manifesto where a synthetic picture emerges. The more analytical aspects of the personality will be discussed in Part II, where the starting point will be indicated by treating problems such as distinguishing sex differences or the specific attributes of a Peter or a Paul.

SECTION 2:
THE PERSONAL FACTOR:
A SYNTHETIC PERSPECTIVE
THE PERSONAL FACTOR AS A DISTINCT AND CENTRAL CONCEPT

In religion we speak of the 'soul', which is what is subjected to a progress called 'spiritual'. Soul is the central concept here, without which theological sermons would be difficult. Education needs a similar concept which should be more positively or scientifically conceived. The terms "libido", "persona", "psyche", "subliminal self", "conscious or subconscious ego", are terms already available which have their own particular connotations, coloured by their usage or origin in abnormal or analytical psychology or in the psychology of psychic phenomena. Individuality can apply to humans and animals indifferently. Education has to do with specifically human qualities. Homo sapiens is distinguished by an elaborate brain, and through contemplation can attain to the heights of a superman if so desired, or to the state of a world citizen by social and political adjustment. The notion of the personal factor has to give room for all these possibilities and qualities of the self of Man. The term "personal factor" is what we propose here.

(a) There are two distinct sides or aspects to the personal factor.
Knowledge is what education connotes primarily. There is the synthetic knowledge of the subjective self that we can know when we contemplate it in silence or in seclusion to cut down or minimise external impressions that reach us.

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This inner aspect of the personal factor is what can sense its own presence as a light within, which in reality is not strictly localized within us in any actually objective sense.

(b) The second aspect of the personal factor is what philosophy
distinguishes as the non-self. This is what is to be known - as distinguished from what knows - in the subjective self. Both of these are synthetic concepts, and are thus to be treated within the range of this first part of the manifesto before we come to the analytical aspects of the personal factor in the latter half.

PERSONAL FACTOR A REALITY, THOUGH THE APPROACH IS BY WAY OF AN ABSTRACTION
Although the personal factor is admittedly a mental abstraction, it has its status in reality as something that both exists and subsists. It exists in the sense that its presence is necessarily felt; and it subsists in the sense that even when its presence is not felt by the senses, it enters our consciousness as a formal idea or entity which we are bound to take into account in any intelligent understanding of the personality involved in education. In spite of being an abstraction, it is thus capable of being understood realistically. Actual life-problems do not therefore lie outside the scope of the personality as we conceive it here.

THE INTUITIVE APPROACH
The tendencies that constitute the personal factor could be studied on a chart or with the help of a schematic representation for the purposes of understanding them unitively and globally, as held together by an absolute life- or consciousness-principle. Rousseau puts this same verity in his own interesting way when he is speaking of God's own type of intelligence as follows:

"All truths are for it but one idea, as all places one spot, a single point, and all time one single moment". (10)

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The idea of the eternal present or the dialectical moment is implied here in dealing with the subject of the personality of man; for it has to include in its treatment both psychic and physical factors at once from a neutral standpoint. Bertrand Russell would call such an approach that of Neutral Monism, and Descartes' definition of intuition would also include this philosophical approach. All philosophers employ intuition of one kind or another. The correct dialectical way in metaphysics has been employed by Bergson in recent years. Neo-platonic dialectics, Hegelian and Marxian dialectics and the pre-socratic dialectics of Zeno and Parmenides are possible aspects of the same intuitive absolutist approach, which is still to be clearly codified and stated methodically and systematically. The Bhagavad Gita is one of the world's greatest textbooks on dialectics. Plato in his Socratic dialogues refers to dialectics as a hymn. Our manifesto has to approach the personal factor from the same contemplative angle, and this should not be considered its drawback, but rather its special advantage.

Matter and mind can be treated unitively only by such an approach, which therefore need not necessarily be considered unrealistic or impracticable.

CONCENTRIC, CENTRAL OR PERIPHERAL GRADES OF REALITY
Consciousness is a spark at the core of life. This very statement implies central and peripheral aspects of consciousness, which may be called by different names according to their grade of materiality or mentality. The methodology of contemplation calls for the concepts of such concentric grades in the personal factor. Contemplative epistemology would justify this and give it full validity. Organic life, instinctive behaviour or intelligent conduct in the open world are various grades of personal life, with reference to which the personal factor has to be conceived as a unitary concept or norm of thought in the science of education.

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A SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE PERSONAL FACTOR IN ORDER
Just as a map need not be considered a fetish, the use of a schematic representation of the tendencies in the personal factor, so that the human intelligence, which is apt to be too analytical or synthetical, could grasp the ensemble or the pattern of correlation of tendencies, should be considered quite normal in our study of the personal factor. It is often objected that life, being very complex, does not admit of treatment in a simplified manner. It is to be admitted that the totality of life taken in actual detail is complex, but what concerns us in the complex
totality need not necessarily be complicated. The simplification of life-tendencies in the individual for the purpose of perceptual treatment to help our ideas about them, is therefore legitimate, permissible and helpful to the educator. Insofar as it can serve the cause of World Education, such a method will have its place in the present manifesto, because much of what we have to say would otherwise remain vague or discursive.

THE PERSONAL FACTOR, AN ORGANISM IN THE PROCESS OF CREATIVE EVOLUTION
Let us now think of the personal factor in terms of a simple living organism. We know that growth and division are the two main expressions of a living organism. We borrow from Henri Bergson's "Creative Evolution" to help us to visualize clearly what this organism at the basis of the personal factor represents:

"The veritable and profound causes of division were what life carries within itself; for life is a tendency, and the essence of a tendency is to develop in the form of a branching shoot of corn, creating, by the very fact of its growth, the divergent divisions among which it will divide its own vital urge. This is what we are able to observe with regard to our own selves in respect of that special tendency we call our character. Each one of us, by taking a retrospective glance at his own past history, will be able to state that his personality as a child, although an indivisible whole, united within itself in a melted form the persons which could have been there, because of their nascent state; this indefiniteness so full of possibilities is in itself one of the greatest charms of childhood.

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But the personalities which thus interpenetrated become incompatible on growing up, and as each one of us lives but one life, we are forced necessarily to make a choice. We are in reality choosing ceaselessly, and we do abandon many things.... The route that we trace in time is scattered over with all that we began to be and all that we could have become. But nature, which has at her disposal an incalculable number of lives, is not subjected to such sacrifice. She conserves the diverse tendencies, which have diverged on growth. She creates with them those distinct series of species which do evolve
independently." (11)

In this quotation one can distinguish the dialectical approach adopted by Bergson, the latest inheritor of the tradition from Socratic and Neo-Platonic times. Here living realism goes hand in hand with philosophical abstractions of a highly intuitive order. The Vedanta of India knows of the five concentric zones or sheaths called "kosas" that contain the Self. The one consisting of food-value (the annamaya kosa) is the most
peripheral. Books like the "Panchadasi" of Vidyaranya refer to these aspects of the Self (atman) in a manner reminiscent of Bergson's approach. In Plotinus, Vedanta and Western dialectics may be said to find a meeting place.

THE METHOD OF CORRELATION BY TWO AXES CUTTING AT RIGHT ANGLES
It was Descartes who invented a scheme of correlation consisting of two lines intersecting at right angles. This convenient method has been generally adopted in mathematical graphs, as also by psychologists like Beatrice Hinkle in drawing the distinction between extroversion and introversion, which imply the objectivity and subjectivity, respectively, of life- tendencies. In treating the most elementary of life-expressions in connection with the personal factor it will help us to centre our discussions round the explanation given by such correlated schematic representations, without getting lost in elaborations that have no end.

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The first of these sketches is given here (fig. 14.1), and represents graphically, without any poetic or literary effusions that might misguide our imagination, all that is significant for us in the present manifesto.

STRUCTURE FIG. 14.1

EXPLANATION OF FIGURE 14.1:
The vertical axis AB represents the life-duration of the individual organism. The horizontal or lateral axis marks the present with its multiplicity of interests that vary concentrically in their attraction to the individual. 0 is the centre of life where the past and present meet in the dialectical 'moment' or 'eternal present'. The dotted arrows between A and 0 represent virtual tendencies which converge to meet and melt into the matrix of the organism; and the linear arrows above, between O and B, show the divergent tendencies as they choose between alternatives in life's progression or 'creative evolution', as Bergson would put it.

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THE PERSONAL FACTOR AS A UNIT IN PSYCHIC LIFE
The pattern of the personal factor at the zone of nervous functioning is brought out graphically and in living terms in the following abridgement of a passage from "The Principles of Philosophy" (12) of M.E.H. Starling of the University of London:

"How the physiological processes in the nervous fibres on their arrival at the brain could excite a conscious sensation, we are not able to decide or discuss ...No sensation is the immediate or the unique product of the stimulation at the peripheral end of the nervous fibre, but the sensation that is most simple includes a judgement, which is to say that they produce neural activities of a complex order resulting from innumerable currents of the past and the present which are poured into the central nervous system...The first reactions of a baby are those by which it procures its nourishment.... An elementary unit in psychic life, as in neural life, should be a complete reaction. It is from the reaction and not from the sensation that a constructive psychology is to be built."

A careful reading of the above paragraph will reveal that Starling here is reconstructing synthetically what constitutes a complete reaction directed towards an object of interest, and how it has its circulation between the central and peripheral nervous system so as to make us imagine a unit in consciousness. We can find here the same scheme of centralisation and alternation of phases in relation to the same two axes that we have adopted for a correlated picture of life-tendencies. Living duration may be seen to enter into the picture, and not merely events in space.

THE ZONE OF PHYSICAL FUNCTIONING TYPIFIED BY THE HEART-BEAT
Let us now take the functioning of the heart as typifying physiological functioning in general. Terms such as "sex- diastole" or "-systole" are sometimes used in psychopathology, which will justify our claim here that the heartbeat could be taken to represent in its positive or negative, actual or virtual, qualitative or quantitative phases, other larger rhythmic cycles which take place within the limits of the body in the form of nervous or other circulations like the one described by Starling above.

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The same two axes of correlation could be used here as in the case of the progression of an organism in duration.

STRUCTRURE FIG. 14.2

EXPLANATION OF FIGURE 14.2:
The two axes crossing at right angles represent respectively qualitative or quantitative aspects of the functioning of the heart. There is the same rhythmic alternation of phases which are marked clearly enough in the figure itself.

RECONSTRUCTION OF THE PERSONALITY IN EDUCATION
For fear of getting lost in elaborations which should more legitimately find place in a thesis rather than in a simple manifesto of the present kind, we shall confine the rest of our discussion of the personal factor to the explanation of two more diagrams in which the various items or component parts are brought together.

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For more detailed justifications, evidence, documentation and examples, the reader of this manifesto is referred to our already-mentioned book, "The Personal Factor in the Educative Process". (13) Bergson, Rousseau, James, McDougall, Ribot, Rivers, Dumas, Payot, Watson, Claparède and others are the authorities largely relied on in reconstructing, recreating and revaluing notions connected with the personality in education.

education p 193-14

STRUCTURE FIGURE 14.3

EXPLANATION OF FIGURE 14.3: In this figure X 'OX would represent subjective consciousness, and the axis Y'OY, although also subjective in the sense that it is also to be understood as being within the consciousness of the individual, yet pertains to a stimulus-response order of reflexes or automatisms of the personal consciousness when related to the simple present. The terms 'subjective' and 'objective' are to be understood synthetically here. Those elements of consciousness which are related to the past, and are thus the background aspect of the personality, are indicated here by that part of the vertical axis OX'; and the corresponding portion of the vertical axis OX will stand for consciousness which has to do with the exercise of the will.

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Point 0 represents the centre of consciousness in the eternal present or dialectical moment. A distance measured from the Y' Y axis, at whatever point it may be, will indicate by its length that psychic state of tension or virtual relaxation in which some object of desire either influences positively, or enters negatively into, the personal consciousness of the individual.

The four compartments comprised within the two axes would stand,
1. on the positive side to the top, for waking consciousness;
2. that on the top left the field in which virtualities (which have still an objective status as in very realistic dreams) have to be placed;
3. the lower left quarter being the domain where potent virtualities with no name or form exist as related to instinctive dispositions, vague memories or other psychic states connected with tender emotions.
4. The quadrant on the lower right would represent the vaguest of backgrounds of consciousness in which there is only an amorphous matrix which consists merely of a general sense of well-being or of ill-being.
The sense of solidity, liquidity, taste or sound, is able to revive here shapeless memories of the past world or worlds, which constituted the experience of the self in the most synthetic or general of senses. These memories are called "vasanas" (vague instinctive dispositions), related to the five elements with which, in principle at least, consciousness ever enters in contact. The "prius nobis" of Aristotle, and the "turiya" or fourth state of the four-limbed self mentioned in the Mandukya Upanishad, may be said to belong to the past which gets lost in the eternity of the unknown and the unknowable at the point X.

The curve OAOBO, shown in dotted lines, would represent a complete chain of natural behaviour. If we take the example of grazing cattle, it would be possible to relate the psychic factors involved at each point in this curve to active and passive phases of bovine life, which here has the form of a figure-of-eight. One half of it falls into the waking and the other half into the other three subconscious states that we have just distinguished. Dream virtualities are really inverted in time as a series of events in duration so that at the point 0 opposing tendencies meet ambivalently and neutrally. The neutral 0 in consciousness is the Absolute in its purest sense, as spoken of in the last section of the Mandukya Upanishad, where the ego-sense is cancelled by its own opposite, and where all contraries and contradictions meet as if in the Truth of truths or the Light of lights. Reality and illusion, existence and subsistence, and all other pairs or counterparts melt into unity in this core which is both small and big at once. Life-functions or activities that we prize as superior or despise as degrading are cancelled-out in a neutral attitude in a perfect man who is able to live and have his being in what is represented by this centre of life-pulsation.

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This light is the seed of all and the most potent factor in the personality of man. The next peripheral zone marked in the plan of the personality here is the seat of affectivity in general, which consists mainly of emotions and passions. Passions are positive in character by their objectivity and by their prospective orientation. Emotions, on the contrary, are retrospective and are forms of regret. A reminiscent mood is a form of regret and all memories may be said to be regrets that hurt the personality and cause psychopathological states.

Emotions and passions taken together, when the polarity between them is barely evident, give us that zone which may be called the zone of affections of the personality, where sublimations, repressions and conflicts known to psychoanalytical schools and the various factors of psychopathology have their movement or being.

A perfected yogi is one who feels the joy of balanced or harmonised affectivity or sensibility, and who is satisfied in the self by the Self, as the Gita would put it. A thoroughgoing discussion of these matters, properly elaborated, would legitimately take the space of volumes. We shall therefore stop by referring finally to movements in thought or in pure consciousness. We can easily see that these movements still conform to the same pattern of the personal factor into which we have fitted most other aspects.

THE STRUCTURE OF THOUGHT-PROCESSES
John Dewey writes:

"There is thus a double movement in all reflections: a movement from a given, partial and confused situation that is suggested, which is complete and comprehensive (or inclusive) and returning from the suggested whole - which as it is suggested is a sense, an idea - a return movement to particular facts in such a way as to relate the ones with the others and to relate them to additional facts on which the suggestion had attracted attention. In a general way, the first of these movements is inductive and the second deductive. A complete act of thought comprises these two movements; that is to say, an effective interaction of particular facts observed (or which one remembers) and the suggested general sense." (14)

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The above paragraph, whatever its detailed implications may be in the light of Dewey's philosophy, at least brings to light the double movement that we can distinguish even in the poor domain of personal life which consists of what we have called 'movements in thought'.

ANALYTICO-SYNTHETIC SCRUTINY
If such movements in thought are capable of analysis by such respected pragmatic philosophers of modern times as Dewey; the analysis of consciousness by an eastern guru such as the Guru Narayana, when it enters into the same subtle preserves where contemplative philosophers love to dwell, should not be brushed aside by the proud modern as just speculation that is too sentimental or theoretical to command our attention at the present day. The most nuclear picture of the personality of man at its innermost essence or core could again be studied by reference to the two axes of correlation that we have adopted here. Such an analysis could correspond to a dissection in biology, only here the subtlest of aspects of inner life are brought under an analytico-synthetic scrutiny.

THE COMPONENT ELEMENTS OF THE CORE OF CONSCIOUSNESS
Let us take two simple sentences for the purpose of analysing the component elements of consciousness in the most nuclear form as it is felt within each person.

1. First let us take the sentence, "this is a pot", which is a statement of an overt fact or mental event cognised at a certain instant in life. Here the word "this" would represent the vague background of suggestive material which consists of universals. It has no specificity. The inductive functions of thought have their origin in this. In the concept represented by the word "pot", an object in the outer world is located in time and space in a specific manner with a certain name or form that may help to cognise it. The linking word "is" is the act of thinking, whose movement is the central, neutral points that we have already noted.

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2. If, secondly, we take another sentence such as, "This is knowledge", we get to the subjective core of consciousness in which all references to the outer world of sensations is absent. At the base of the vertical axis we should put the connotation of the generic universal concept implicit in "this" which can refer to every kind of particular knowledge. The word "knowledge" itself would have a specific (not generic) content which includes comprehensively all possible knowledge of a pure order that man is capable of cognising, whether through intuition or positive intelligence. When this has a specific human content it would represent a supremely or uniquely high value like the "summum bonum" of Plato. Specific knowledge of an absolute order, as opposed to generic knowledge, is here implied. The vague foundation of this same knowledge is a wisdom-awareness, which is the basis of all reality. There is a movement between this foundation-aspect of wisdom-awareness and specific knowledge. This we can know by contemplation in its most wilfully active phases. The personal factor in its innermost aspects may be schematically represented in the same manner as we have represented its more peripheral aspects, in the manner shown in fig.14.4.

STRUCTURE FIG. 14.4

Without trying to explain more elaborately the implications of this sketch, we shall content ourselves in concluding this first part of the manifesto by quoting from the "One Hundred Verses of Self-Instruction" (Atmopadesa Satakam) of the Guru Narayana:

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"The powers of wisdom are many; all of them under two divisions,
The 'same' and the 'other' could conclusively be brought;
Merging into that form which makes for "other-same-ness"
To clarity of vision one should awake.

To subdue even somewhat the obduracy of the 'other'
Is hard indeed without wisdom's limitless power;
By such do gain mastery over it, and unto her who is
Wisdom, the anti-sensuous One, close access attain.

What appraises manifold variety, the 'other' that is;
And the 'same' is what unitively shines;
Thus understanding the state aforesaid, into that state
That yields sameness, melt and mix and erect sit.

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Following up further the said powers - a second division:
One of these is an attribute of the 'same', while the other
Qualifies the never-to-detachment-attaining harshness
Of the 'other': thus making two kinds of these again.

On to the 'same' as on to the 'other' there constantly alight
Their respective specific powers; though not proportionate
By spin-emergence as between these two in all,
All predications whatsoever come to be.

In 'this is a pot' the initial 'this' is the harsh
While 'pot' is what makes its specific attribute;
For the mind with its myriad magic of Great Indra to come to be,
Understand, 'this' to be the nucleus.

In 'this is knowledge', the initial 'this' is 'same'
While its attribute is cognitive consciousness.
For the mind and all else to vanish
And the good path to gain, 'this' should one contemplate."
(Verses 36-42)

Here we see that eastern wisdom of a contemplative order can meet modern thought neutrally and on a par, in what pertains to this central notion or norm in education.

It is a strange coincidence that while the last paragraphs of the above were being typed, the headlines in the dailies announced: (July 22, 1957):

"East-West Philosophers Find Basis for Discussion: Warsaw Conference Ends: Nearly fifty eminent philosophers from twenty East and West countries tonight wound up a four-day conference here at Warsaw amid statements that they had 'established a dialogue'."

This manifesto on World Education is also meant to make East and West, North and South, meet in the one name of human happiness dear to all mankind.

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II
In Part I of this manifesto we were able to arrive at a global and
synthetic perspective of the personal factor in education. Our aim was to reconstruct an integrated though schematic picture of this in the light of a time-honoured intuitive approach known to philosophers, eastern or western, of antiquity or of recent years. In this part, we are retaining this reconstructed image as the basis of what we have to say concerning the varieties and modalities of the personal factor when more analytically viewed. We have to distinguish here not merely the basic aspects of the personality implicit in the personal factor, as we have called this central notion, but also those explicit traits of the personal factor which exist in a more overt sense. In other words, those characteristics of the personal factor by which we should be able to appraise the difference between a Peter and a Paul, instead of merely referring in generic terms to any Rama or Krishna, must stand out in relief from the comparatively stable (though not altogether static) psyche of Part I.

Education should be understood in terms of changing man for the better. Such a change must manifest itself in behaviour, whether in the individual or in the general pattern we call civilization.

UNITY OF ENDS AND MEANS
The education of gentleman as known in the West has here to be thought of in the same breath as the perfected model of spiritual life as conceived in the great religions of the world. Insofar as these models have given us patterns of a good life worth perpetuating, they should be conserved. In evolving the gentleman or the perfect man of the future, we might have to put into the melting-pot many of those petrified moulds which the conservative orthodoxies of various departments of human life have thrown up to the surface through the changes or upheavals of history.

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Living and dialectically revalued notions of piety, sportsmanship, chivalry, social responsibility, statesmanship or even citizenship have to enter into the makeup of the educated gentleman of tomorrow. Contemplation, which knows no historical limitation, has also to be given its full place in a normative model such as we have to keep in mind. The man of tomorrow must be one hundred per cent human and thus represent the highest human value in himself. To accomplish this end, the innate and overt aspects of the personality have to be adjusted and balanced. A scientifically-understood norm has to apply to the image and to the mould it fits into, at once. In other words, the subjective and the objective have to be justly and truly comprehended. Disequilibrium, maladjustment and lack of harmony or beauty have to be avoided. As a head-dress must match the man or woman concerned, so the behaviour-pattern available for the educated person has to agree with what he represents in himself as the effect of his education up to that moment. Thus ends and means have to meet unitively in the process, and more especially in the final stages of positive adjustment in education. The ends and means have to meet, at least in infinity or eternity, so that some behaviouristic cap or other has to be chosen, whether one likes it or not. Such is the implication of absolute necessity, which in a practical sense culminates with death, and in a theoretical sense with eternal life. The crisis of man, whether actual or spiritual, has to be met with the benefit of the best wisdom available to man and in keeping with the dignity of the race.

When Shakespeare says that a man's dress "declareth the man" in him; or when proverbs tell us that birds of a feather flock together; or again when the Bhagavad Gita states "what a man's faith is, that he even is" (XVII. 3); or even when a modern psychologist is able to recognize with Th. Ribot: 'The man of great passion is confiscated wholly by his passion, he is his passion" (15) - we are touching one of the laws of fundamental personal dialectics. It is also said that, "as a man thinketh, he becometh".

In the human world of actions and opportunities which is spread before each individual, there are many items that, through necessity, taste or refinement, he would select to adopt as his own. Man is ever equating himself to things or thoughts.

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The hat that a woman would wear; the food that a boy might select when seated at a feast spread before him; the pattern of behaviour to which he would naturally conform; not to mention the occupations corresponding to his aptitudes - have all to be understood as regulated by the laws of personal dialectics implied in each case. These laws could be used diagnostically besides being rules to be followed. The Sabbath could be for man and vice-versa, according to the necessity or contingency involved in the situation. Education must meet the individual and the individual must fit into the available pattern in the world of activities and opportunities.

SECTION 1:

THE CONTENT OF EDUCATION

FROM SIMPLE SENSATIONS TO HIGH HUMAN VALUES
If a simple sensation reaching the organism may be said to mark the alpha of the educative process, the omega of the series may be said to be marked by the appreciation of high human values. In this manifesto this is to be conceived as a positive and progressive adjustment of personal tendencies, reaching out to the highest of human values within one's grasp. Even in the final stage of perfection, sensations are not totally abolished, but tend to recede into the background to occupy a secondary position. The personality does not live in a vacuum, but in a graded scale of behaviour-patterns. It fits into a field of creative life-expression with a starting-point and a culminating target to reach. Activity and affectivity require catering to in this process, without violating laws of human dialectics which concern one's existence, one's more formal or intelligent subsistence, and the values that might attract or repel one at each intermediate stage. The process is not mechanistic but living, creative and organic.
If we should consider a simple sensation, we find that the stimulus that starts it, through centralisation from the periphery, attains to the core of consciousness.

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Instead of resulting in a simple unit-response, as wrongly supposed by some mechanistically-minded physiologists, simple stimuli invariably produce whole, complex or integrated responses, resulting in ideas, through a characteristic central delay after the irradiation of the primary impulse. The ideas attain to a higher or lower status in consciousness according to the facilitations, inverse or onward, going towards the higher or lower centres, already there in the form of habitual dispositions connected with instincts and memories.

If we rely on Rousseau's educational psychology here, rather than being misled by stimulus-response psychology (dominated by its brass instruments and gadgets, which what is called experimental education has brought into vogue in the West, and which may be called a form of scientific superstition peculiar to the age), we can easily see that personal life, with which education is concerned, hardly consists of unit-sensations, the total sum of which make up life. On the contrary, the simplest sense-stimulus gets translated and verticalized into an idea, integrated and raised to the status of an interest or a life-value. Sensations and perceptions have to be understood unitively. As Rousseau points out:

"Simple ideas are nothing but sensations that have been compared. There are judgements involved in the simplest of sensations." (16)

That an idea is also an idea of value we shall see on page 217.

VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL WORLDS OF VALUES
If modern philosophy admits of the notion of Monadology of Leibniz, in which the Monad of monads corresponds to God; and if the cosmology of Descartes admits of a universe in which ethereal fluids move round a vortex - it should not sound strange in these days of the space-time continuum, and of the drastic revision of our theory of knowledge, methodology and value notions, that we should, for the sake of brevity, begin here to refer, as it were, abruptly, to vertical and horizontal worlds of values.

In the "Contrat Social" Rousseau himself uses this contrasting set of values in his discussion, as follows:

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"As I meditated on the nature of man, it seemed that I discovered therein two distinct principles; one of them rose to the study of eternal verities, towards love, justice and true morality, to those regions of the world that the sage loves to contemplate; the other lowered it, rendered it slave of the senses, and of passions, which are its instruments, and was thus opposed to all that was suggested by the first principle."

Once the sensation gets integrated into a value-idea by the very interest that it implies thereby, it can exert a vertical pull upwards, hypostatically; or become a lowering weight that can, by a descending dialectical process, bring the consciousness into relation with simple existents that are of interest in the sustenance or joy of life. Taste, smell, touch, sight and hearing can work unitively hand in hand with natural elements or entelechies, as Aristotle would call them, conceived as value-factors (and not as mere objects), to make a whole string of values, from simple existent ones to the high ideological ones of the platonic world of the Intelligibles. A contemplative psychology, epistemology and methodology are implied here, which we cannot discuss at length in this manifesto. We shall, however, have occasion to discuss the epistemological and other implications of this contemplative, intuitive approach to the personal factor in some of the sections that follow.

THE BASIC CONFLICT AND UNITIVE TREATMENT OF LIFE VALUES
It is true that one cannot serve two masters, and that Caesar's domain is different from that of God. As Rousseau would put it strikingly, as pertains to education one "cannot make a citizen and a man at once".

This contradiction at the core of the personal tendencies themselves has to be fully recognized in any science of education that deserves the name. In the scheme that we have adopted, the conflict is represented by the correlates crossing at right angles. Every aspect of personal life, within body limits or outside, is subject to the conflict.

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It is the task of contemplation, however, to resolve this conflict unitively, and to transcend or overcome the confusion it might bring in the process of education, by developing a sound methodology, epistemology and a scheme of values proper to it. Within its humble limits, this manifesto gives broad indications in this matter of great importance. For the time being let us name this the "law of conflicting interests in education". This is the second law. The first law was already implicit in Part I of the manifesto, being the "law of unity, equality or identical total value".

THE LAW OF POLARITY OR AMBIVALENCE
The third law and the second of the important fundamental notions that we have to formulate correctly in personal psycho-dynamics may be called the "law of polarity or ambivalence". In the domain of biology it was Bleuler who first defined this term. Other terms such as dichotomy, polarity, synergism, antinomian principles - all expressing this reciprocal interdependence or relationship of a complementary or compensatory character - have been understood or used in physiology, theology, philosophy or cosmology. This element of paradox or tragic conflict in life attains to the very core of our being. Hamlet's "to be or not to be" is ever echoed in our hearts at every step we take, whether intellectual or physical. Piety and works are opposed, as also grace and sin. Groups of muscles balance one another; functioning itself delicately hangs in the balance, as with the heart, which is energised by two distinct sets of nerves, one positive and the other negative. The neutral core of consciousness is the wheel's hub where conflicting spokes meet, as the Upanishads and the Tao Teh Khing would put this verity. We should be content for the present to derive two secondary laws based on this principle of polarity. These could be stated as follows: III (a) the law of compensation of interests and III (b) the law of equilibrium. Their nature will be clear from the contexts as we continue.

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EDUCATION CONSISTS OF A SERIES OF EQUATIONS TO INTERESTS
There have been many definitions of education; that it is "a drawing out" or "a driving in of truth", that it is "a preparation to face the battle of life", that it is "the development of head and heart" or "of the whole man", that its aim is "social adjustment for utility" or "for leisure", that it is "for citizenship" etc. Each of them may be partially valid, but the best of them is one which treats ends and means unitively, and refers to the process in terms of harmony, equilibrium, balance, beauty or proportion in life-tendencies. There is a cancelling-out of counterparts, a constant search for agreement, accord or unitive peace with oneself or with the outer world, involved in the best notion of education. Childhood-interests are equated with play; youth-interests in seeking companionship; old-age-interests in thoughts good, bad or indifferent. One sphere of interest succeeds another, but the balancing of counterparts holds good always, and man tends by his natural gift of reason to rise in the scale of values, while the equilibrium of forces, acting horizontally, is ever maintained constant. A scientifically- conceived education has thus the law of equilibrium implied in its end and its means.

THE CONTENT OF POSITIVE EDUCATION
We have noted that Rousseau considered the earliest phase of education as negative. Does this mean that later stages of education are positive, and if so, what is the precise content of such a programme? When the child grows towards becoming a young person his interests are directed to things with which he wants to be related intelligently or actively. Common everyday science, by which he relates himself to the physical world, gives him interesting experiences by which he is able to dispel, step by step, wrong or apparent notions with corrected or true ones. When his vision thus penetrates into the veil of appearance, his education may be said to be getting positively adjusted. One simple interest gives place to another, until one day he discovers that there are interesting events happening to himself. He then compares himself with others. This becomes the second stage of the positive process of education. He wishes to be self-sufficient and earn an honest livelihood and finally get a companion in life.

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Simple, natural, positive adjustments of tendencies go on up to this point without any tragic factors creeping into life. Later in life, education demands higher idealistic adjustment in which tragic conflicts incidental to life are conquered by a more positive, yet unitive, solution. Thus, after the first stage of education, the whole of the remainder of the educative process has a positive content. Normal positive education is thus a harmonious ascent or a vertical adjustment to life-values. All tragic values involving conflict lie in the horizontal series of interests from which the educand is to be saved as much as possible. To help the pupil in this way to adjust his urges progressively and harmoniously, turning him away from the harsh and tragic aspects of life, is the task of the educator.

THE ONLOOKER THE BEST EDUCATOR, EVEN IN POSITIVE EDUCATION
Although we have just said that tragedy is to be avoided, this is not to be done wilfully by any interference or escapist doctrine. A born tragic hero must have a tragic situation to face to prove his worth. To hinder his self-fulfilment would be dangerous. Each type has its proper vocation in life, and this principle, which the Gita calls "svadharma" (one's proper calling), requires to be respected absolutely. The inner man must be matched one hundred per cent with the outer circumstance in a situation which, though apparently involving two wrongs, sometimes, when the two are put together, works for one right. The discipline by natural consequences that both Rousseau and Spencer adopt in their educational theories respects this principle of non-intervention or interference by the educator.
This is but a corollary of the principle of equalization and of the neutralisation of opposing tendencies in the pupil throughout the process. The plus and the minus aspects of the sets of tendencies involved in any given interest of the educand must by themselves be allowed to attain to an equilibrium by his working out his salvation himself, through his own proper vocation. Forcing in any way would only distort the tendencies.

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Freedom, however, should not include freedom to go wrong and become maladjusted. The educator should expect from each according to his ability and give to each according to his need. He has to maintain here a neutrality based on a law of compensatory reciprocity, which is of the essence of the bipolar relation which, as we have said, is implied in education.
It is in this sense that the educator has been compared to an intelligent gardener who tends and watches, or to a good shepherd who leads his flock to fresh waters and green pastures. Socrates, who was concerned with the highest role of education, as the teacher of wisdom, still compared himself only to a midwife. Tolstoy has compared the subtle bipolar relation involved to the process of osmosis between liquids separated by living tissue. The reciprocity may be illustrated by referring to two magnets packed together so that one would help the other to retain its own power without getting spent itself. A dialectical law of reciprocity is here implied. The Guru (spiritual teacher) and the Sisya (pupil in wisdom) were known to be related in this bipolar way in ancient Indian education. This is instinctively understood even by Indian peasant women to the present-day.

EDUCABILITY OF THE EDUCAND NEED NOT BE DOUBTED
Many modern thinkers have doubted even the educability of the educand. Among such, Th. Ribot put his finger at the very centre of the question when he stated briefly, "true character does not change". Voltaire, who is the representative of the Age of Reason, put it more pointedly when he said:

"would you insist absolutely on changing the character of a man? Then purge him everyday with diluents till you have him dead".

Guyau, Spinoza, Gall, Schopenhauer, Taine and Spencer are among the other thinkers who thought education could not do much to change the nature of a man. (17)

This objection would at once lose its whole force when we adopt the standpoint attributed to Muhammad that if the mountain would not come to him, he would go to the mountain. Dialectically approached, according to a theory that is also dialectically correct, and with dialectical relations or conditions properly secured for the osmotic process to go on, education still has possibilities of full success in its highest aim.

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Some people like Voltaire have the perversity to obtain doubly wrong conclusions even when doubly right ones are possible. Reason can be wrongly used like an inverted telescope. Even extremely wrong opinions sometimes help us to see the truth of the opposite. Dialectics can resolve a double disaster into a blessing both ways.

THE DIALECTICAL APPROACH TO WORK-A-DAY PROGRAMMES IN EDUCATION
At this stage it might be objected that, this dialectical approach being of such an airy subtlety, it could not enter into school teaching in any tangible form. Gleaned from personal experience in teaching in various types of institutions from primary to university grades in different parts of the world, the following general indications may be set forth here as guiding principles for the educational practitioner:

(a) Recognition of the background aspects of the personality of the child which are the retrospective seat of the instincts, memories and global emotional dispositions connected with repose and relaxation, is a much neglected matter in actual educational practice as obtaining in the large public schools of today. The background aspect comes into evidence in the classroom when we find that certain children take more time for expression than others; but when they do begin to express themselves, they do better than those whose response was earlier and quicker. There is a kind of subconscious receptacle, where impressions lie stored and delayed before they become organized and ready for expression. The capacity of this receptacle varies with different children, and the teacher who ignores this difference would be dealing wrongly with the child, who might be forced to keep pace with pupils less richly endowed in this respect. Thus damage might be done which it would be hard to heal later on. The richer the negative aspect, the higher is the promise for the future.

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(b) Differing levels of personal reaction to the same set of interests or situations is another matter which a mechanistically-minded approach to education would tend to ignore with disastrous results. Defective children may show precociousness, which should not be encouraged. Normal healthy reactions should be encouraged even when the attainment from the scholastic point of view might be at an inferior level for the time being.

(c) There is similarly a personal rhythm of progression belonging to the personality of each child which it would be disastrous not to recognize, as the tendency happens to be in mass impersonal education. Slow and steady alternation can be superior to a quick rhythmic alternation, which might be due to a sick soul.

(d) There is even a diurnal alternation of emotive and intellectual, prospective and retrospective, positive or negative phases involved in everyday education which should be remembered both in framing the timetable and in balancing the curriculum. Analytical intellectual exercise must occupy the morning hours, and such subjects as history and light literary studies taken during the reminiscent, reposeful mood of the evening hours.

(e) Complete reactions are to be preferred to partial ones. This is another rule that mass education is likely to neglect. A natural chain of behaviour involves various phases, which we have tried to trace in Part I of this Manifesto. The figure-of-eight that it traces involves a natural sequence which follows a certain living order peculiar to the personal factor. A cyclist going uphill can admire a sunset without compromising one activity by the other. Although "one thing at a time" is proverbially a good rule, a properly compensated and balanced programme of daily activities helps to make education a pleasure to the teacher and to the taught. Here again a dialectical approach, equating work and play, helps in everyday education.

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(f) There is another long range of helpful possibilities in that innate urge in the child to see himself as a person reflected in all he comes in contact with. Personification, which is a general instinctive urge in child-life, has already been found to be helpful in teaching dry subjects like grammar where, for example, noun and pronoun are pictured as persons who take the place of each other. Personification is, however, a much more serious and deep-seated urge in the educand and an effective handle in education.

(g) The possibilities of mutual personal adoption or admiration between the teacher and the taught, when correctly accomplished as a condition in education, are well known in the educational world. Mutual admiration can go to the extent of absolute hero-worship, and then the handle that the right educator gets to shape the character of the pupil is very great. A good teacher often succeeds in making such a lasting mark on the spirit of the pupil that it can change his character. Even if a small percentage of a mass of students should thus get changed, education should be considered a worthwhile undertaking in the interests of humanity.

(h) The personality of the teacher could help the pupil in overcoming inhibitory crises. The progressive adjustment that we call education has critical stages, some of which the pupil might find too difficult to cross unaided, morally if not physically. The situations are many and varied, whether in the classroom, the sports field, or in the larger world outside
the school walls. Correct bipolar relations with a sympathetic teacher whom the pupil admires, likes, or better, adopts willingly as his model, can work the wonder of enabling the hesitant, inhibited pupil to get past the spiritual or intellectual hurdles of various grades of inhibitions in life. Under this heading, hundreds of possibilities of effective education are
open to the teacher who, like the pupil, must be born for the specific job involved in the education that concerns both of them equally as partners inseparable for life.

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Thus we arrive at the basic notion and role of a Guru as tacitly understood in Indian pedagogics from the most ancient times.

SECTION 2

THE PERSONAL FACTOR:
ANALYTICAL PERSPECTIVE
Having, in Part I of this manifesto, dealt with the personal factor involved in the educative process synthetically (though not statically, as some writers with Cartesian duality in their minds have done); and having disposed of general matters of educational or pedagogic import connected with the everyday practice of education, as it exists at the present-day - it now remains for us to take a bird's-eye-view of the analytical and more positive aspects of education as a process of progressive adjustment to overt and larger situations of life, considered individually as well as collectively at once. This latter aspect could legitimately be called the psycho-dynamical aspect of the personal factor, although the description of the earlier aspect would not strictly be psycho-statics, as is usually distinguished in treatises on the subject of the "Human Personality and Its Analysis". (18)

In considering one part or aspect of the personality as static we should be allowing or admitting unconsciously a duality of treatment of the unitive personality, prejudiced by the body-mind differences which still vitiate and compromise our understanding of the subject. Our claim in this manifesto is that this unitive concept of the person involved in education has not so far been given its complete, correct or legitimate place in the centre of educational discussions. State educational programmes, not to mention programmes conceived by such bodies as the UN or the UNESCO, to whom we should naturally turn for evolving a science of education, have so far either wilfully neglected it or unconsciously by-passed it in their haste to produce on a mass scale those citizens who would defend the frontiers or ideological barriers within which they love to live.

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Thus we see that between the slogans of "Education for Democracy" or "Education for a Classless Society", in the mouths of the giants who dominate opinion or policy in such matters, there has come to be no common human ground where proper educational theory could have a chance to flourish. This manifesto is not concerned with revising all aspects of educational theory, but only in presenting the personal factor, involved even in public or positive aspects of education, as a central integrated notion round which all theorisation, which tends to be over-departmentalised and disintegrated without it, could be built. The notion of the personal factor would supply the peg from which all theoretical elaborations could hang, and could at least be a basis for future discussion, even if not as a completed or perfected notion as conceived here at present.

PSYCHO-STATICS AND PSYCHO-DYNAMICS TREATED UNITIVELY
The dialectical treatment of a science is radically different from the same treated rationally, mechanistically, unilaterally or dualistically. There is a subtle difference here which, being missed, would end our discussion in futility and frustration. If we should give actuality importance in the name of 'objectivity', then by that very token, we fall into the error of neglecting perceptual factors; and again, the slightest extra emphasis on the spiritual or ideological would land us into a similar dualistic position which would compromise the correct understanding of the personal factor. The Advaita (non-dualist) philosophy in India aims at avoiding this duality by a neutral, unitive approach in the name of the Absolute. Modern philosophers like Bertrand Russell, although they do not go the whole way with Advaita, have been inclined to put their case on similar unitive lines. As an example, Bertrand Russell has named his position as that of Neutral Monism.

In these days of brass-instrument psychological study, based on an almost empirical stimulus-response psychology, the matter-mind duality still vitiates our educational thought, to its great detriment. The physiology of the dissection table suffers still from a similar prejudice, from the dead grip of which Dr. Alexis Carrel and others have tried to save it. (19)

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But orthodoxies die hard, whether in religion or in science, and this manifesto takes its stand on a bold unitive approach to the problem of personality, by which a dead or static educator would be ruled out in favour of a living and sympathetic guide.
Likewise the child would not be considered merely a stimulus-response bundle, or worse still, a piece of behaviouristic mechanism with no mind within it, as J.B. Watson would put it. Even a bare theory of play has not been found possible to be formulated properly on this mechanistic basis which seems still in full vogue in the educational world. In this present age of reason and of the proud triumph of science, it is no wonder that the educability of the educand has been called into question. If the almightiness of education as a force to change the individual character with which a man might be born is to be discredited, that does not justify the extreme opposite position which empirical thinkers take with such insistent perversity. A unitive, neutral, yet 'positive' approach to personal adjustment in education is therefore what this manifesto stands for.

A COMMON METHODOLOGY AND EPISTEMOLOGY FOR ALL SCIENCES
After Protagoras' dictum in the fifth century BC that "man is the measure of all values", which was reiterated in the Delphic inscription, "know thyself", we can go forward twenty-two centuries to Alexander Pope who wrote, "the proper study of mankind is man". Even earlier than Pope, in the latter half of the sixteenth century, there was a young man who from his seventeenth year nourished the ambition of correlating all knowledge unitively. We refer to Francis Bacon whose "Novum Organum" was laughed at by his colleague, the eminent lawyer Sir Edward Coke who, when presented with it, wittily wrote on its cover:

"It deserveth not to be read in schools
But to be freighted in the ship of fools."

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Since the time of Bacon very few have dared to step into this ambitious project, for fear of being called names. Eastern thought, however, has tacitly and openly nourished this ambition, and the great dicta (maha-vakyas) of the Vedanta, such as "I am the Absolute", 'Thou art That", "All is the Absolute" and "I and the Absolute are One", which boldly enshrine the same position as that of Protagoras and the Delphic Oracle, only in different persons, first, second or third, as applied to the central person involved in all of them - these still keep alive in the mouth of the common man and the pundit of the contemplative soil of India this high aspiration of the spirit. Transplanted from the natural Indian soil, such dicta might sound strange, especially in the West which is proud of its own background and which has had its own different history where memories of the Inquisition linger on. It is but natural, therefore, that any global, unitive approach to the self or the personality in man is dubbed as dogmatic and suspect in the West. This is because of the lack of a common methodology and epistemology implying a scale of truly human values behind an integrated notion of the Self in man.

THE REVOLT FROM PRAGMATISM
Prof. John U. Nef. of the University of Chicago, who broadcast a speech explaining the Committee on Social Thought, which he took great initiative in starting recently under the aegis of that academic body, expressed the growing attitude of dissatisfaction in regard to this question of neglecting the study, as he put it, of "Man as a Whole".

In this manifesto we are not therefore alone when we say that this neglect of the study of man in this manner is a serious lacuna which it is high time the educational world filled up quickly, without feeling uncomfortable or touchy about it any more. In Prof. Nef's broadcast speech we read the following bold declaration of faith in unequivocal terms:

"I believe the pragmatists not only lost their own critical faculties but dimmed those of their students and colleagues. Critical faculties with qualitative distinctions and universal principles, are the basis of a creative cultural life."

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Outlining the origin and background of the Committee on Social Thought in a handout of the department, Prof. Nef, enumerating the problems of the creative life and of education which confront modern society, says firstly:

"One is the loss of the common classical and Christian inheritance in the intellectual sense."

While thus relying on something that belongs to the West he explains in his broadcast speech:

"At this same time, some of us in the University of Chicago were trying to establish an independent enterprise in graduate study, which would cut across departmental lines, and would be devoted to those very problems which were either ignored altogether or left to the charlatans." (20)

ATMOSPHERE OF HESITANCY
Whoever might be in the mind of the professor when he refers to "charlatans"; and whatever may be the content that he might have been thinking of, not necessarily in any sense exclusively, of the classical and Christian inheritance alluded to above - there at least seems to be some sort of hesitation here to be fully bold and open in respect of this new and interesting development in the educational world of today. We have reason to feel that this hesitancy is shared by the university authorities also, as we listen to Prof. Nef when he continues in the same broadcast:

"Despite the fact that the President of the University and the Dean of Social Sciences were members of the group, we still had trouble ...When the negotiations were under way for setting us up, the Dean rang me on the telephone: "I can never get us set up under the title, "The Committee on Civilization", he explained in distress. "What title would you suggest?", I asked. 'The Committee on Social Thought'", he replied. "What does that mean?" I asked. "I don't know", he said, "but I think it might get us through the executive committee, because nowhere in the University is there any study of social thought".

Here we find pragmatism with a vengeance. We have taken the trouble and the liberty of quoting this here in detail because of the rare and realistic picture it gives of the hesitancy and suspicion that might be said to be representative of the modern world of education, of which Chicago is a sufficiently important centre.

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If East and West are ever to have a common meeting ground at all, it is time that we began to think in more bold and absolutist terms without any Kipling-mentality declaring the impossibility of their meeting. Fortunately for us, philosophers are not altogether extinct in the West, nor is Guruhood in the East. If the best of each could be brought close together there is still the possibility in such an undertaking of a common ground emerging into view as a hopeful sign of the times. Openness is not, however, the exclusive prerogative either of the East or the West.

HOW THE "PRINCIPLE OF THE BETTER" ENTERS PSYCHO-DYNAMICS
The "principle of the better" that Leibniz formulated, reconciling Cartesian and Aristotelian notions, is the same as that which we have already referred to as the vertical series of interests in life (see pages 202, 203 above). When the idea is one that implies value, it becomes interesting to the living organism with its consciousness, which seeks to live by a series of successive interests in life. The latest philosophers of the West still adhere to these notions, and it has not gone out of date with Leibniz. We have evidence for this in the report of the present incumbent to the Chair of Philosophy of the Collège de France - that unique institution founded by the royal patronage of Francis I as early as 1530, which has preserved the best learning that France inherited from classical times. In its "Annuaire" for the year 1948. Prof. Louis Lavalle, in summarising his course for the year, has the following:

"But the idea could not be a mediating factor between spiritual entities (les esprits) except on condition of proposing to each of them an end which it could will, estimate and like. It is in this sense that the idea is always an idea of value."

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Although the correspondance may not be exact, the conclusions of Vedantic or Advaitic thought in India - whose categories of Absolute Wisdom consist of asti (existing), bhati (conscious) and priyam (desirable), can be seen to have the same or similar elements or categories of thought implied in them. The hope of finding a common basis for Eastern and Western thought is not, therefore, to be given up too easily.

DICHOTOMY INVADES EVEN THE VERY CORE OF CONSCIOUSNESS
Let us revert here for a moment to an analysis of the component elements of consciousness, as we did when we took a close and almost microscopic view of its dynamism in the last section of Part I of this manifesto. In the verses of Guru Narayana quoted there, we got as far as distinguishing two conflicting sets of tendencies which were considered under the heads of 'sameness' and 'otherness' (sama and anya). It was pointed out there that detachment of contemplative self-sufficiency was not to be expected from the pursuit of horizontal interests which had to do with the 'harsh otherness' of the objectively-directed tendencies. Besides this primary conflict, it has been indicated in Verse 40 that, within each of the two sets of vertical or horizontal values themselves, there is a dichotomy or polarity implied. The generic aspect of each of these sets of interests reveals a dichotomous ambivalence in relation to the
specific aspect of the same. The generic of the horizontal tendency consists of vague virtualities still belonging to the 'objective' order; while the generic aspect of the vertical is unitive and universal in its content. The specific aspect which comes to meet it does not belong to it, but approaches it, as it were, from an opposite pole of reality. As between the two axes and between each treated separately, dichotomy is operative. Horizontal specificity spells bondage, while vertical generality tends to release the personality. We know we are treading on very speculative grounds here, and therefore let us fall back on some classical writers for support. Referring to the nature of the Word or Logos, Aristotle states:

"The Word may be regarded under two aspects: (a) as multiplicity of particulars and (b) as a system of general laws on which the particular depends."

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Reason, Aristotle has to admit, is not part of the human soul, but distinct therefrom. Nous is introduced into the soul "ab extra" and Aristotle speaks of it as a divine element in man. (21) What is of special interest for us to note here is the "ab extra" or hypostatic status of reason which stands for the specific aspect of knowledge, wisdom or awareness.

THE FINAL ABOLITION OF ALL DUALITY IN PURE CONSCIOUSNESS
Although we have just said that dichotomy enters into the very core of consciousness, we have to make it clear that this only applies to a psycho-dynamical picture. There is, theoretically at least, a centre in pure consciousness where opposing tendencies are neutralized. Descartes, who was blamed for his dualistic treatment of matter and spirit, was still able to say, "In the fact of self-consciousness, truth and existence are identical." The descending dialectics of Aristotle, which postulated the "universalia ante re", and the ascending dialectics of Plato, who arrived at "universalia ante rem" were reconciled by Scholastic philosophers, and Spinoza, who spoke of the higher intuitive way, refers to "scientia intuitiva", a contemplative way, by which

"the concrete individualities of imaginative experience are restored, but at a higher level where the individual things are no longer conceived fragmentarily and in isolation, but in their relationship to their dependence upon the infinite ground."

Without being tempted further into this domain of philosophical speculation, it is our object merely to say that, whether known as Logos or Nous, there is a point at which all differences vanish into absolute oneness, whether we follow Eastern or Western philosophy to the very limits of possible speculation.

THE DIALECTICAL APPROACH SUPERIOR TO THE MERELY RATIONAL
Reasoning based on formal logical methods leads to sterile speculations about the meaning of Truth or Existence.

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This meaning cannot live in an intellectual vacuum and flourish.
The content of truth has to represent some human value falling within the range of normal human life. Unitive values in life emerge when opposites in consciousness are cancelled out or merged into the sameness of the vertical principle which we have tried to distinguish in previous sections and at the end of Part I of this manifesto.

As pure time does not depend on night or day but can still be a living experience as Time, so there is a way of arriving at natural, normal, just, good, true or beautiful values in life through a dialectical approach to reality. A programme in education maybe credited to be well founded to the extent that unitive values in life are met by unitive interests progressively or harmoniously as life unfolds through all its stages.

This dialectical way in education may be said to correspond to the way of the yogi as known in Indian contemplative life. The Bhagavad Gita, which is a textbook of unitive human values arrived at by the dialectical way, which it succeeds in defining with scientific precision, puts dialectical wisdom above wisdom plain and simple, the latter being devoid of human import. Educational theory has therefore to be conceived in terms of producing a man who is filled with one hundred per cent humanity.

THE CASE FOR INTEGRAL EDUCATION OR "MAN AS A WHOLE"
The education of "man as a whole" is an expression which we are beginning to hear frequently from educational reformers. Man-making, character-building, moral or spiritual education, meant perhaps more or less the same in older days. If character is fixed at birth by nervous patterns belonging to types, where is the hope for this expression to refer to anything practicable? Only by understanding the structure of the personal factor in all its aspects, subtle and gross, central and peripheral, in a unitive dialectical manner, given proper educational theory and an educator who can apply it correctly in relation to his pupil, can we hope to obtain full results, when all the conditions are properly secured. Herein lies the only hope for the future of education.

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This, in short, is what would finally justify a manifesto such as this claims to be. It must be pointed out here that the education which has come into vogue in modern life, largely based on a stimulus-response psychology under the leadership of the United States, errs glaringly in not providing for the education of man as a whole. John Dewey, the most eminent of American educationalists, himself admits this truth when he writes,

"Particular stimulus-response connections, interpreted on the basis of isolated reflexes, are viewed as static cross-sections, and the factor most important in education, namely, the longitudinal, the temporal span of growth and change, is neglected." (22)

It is interesting to note here, that by referring to the 'longitudinal' section as a factor most important in education, John Dewey, though, as we have seen, now being discredited as a mere pragmatist by his own disciples in Chicago, still gives us the hint that he is not only interested in the education of man as a whole, but also that his own scheme of the personal factor involved in education is not fundamentally different from what we have developed so far in this manifesto.

THE FOUR ZONES OR GRADES OF PERSONAL CONSCIOUSNESS
Education as a bipolar process will be effective only to the extent that the deepest seats of consciousness are brought reciprocally into relationship as between educator and educand. It would not be out of place, therefore, to examine the other strata, layers, levels, zones or aspects of the personality involved in education, which lie hidden, as it were, under the visible surface where stimuli and responses, in the overt sense, may be said to live and move. In adopting the scheme of correlation that we have chosen, we have really made due provision to refer to four aspects of consciousness, each of which refer to the four states of waking, dreaming, sleeping and general awareness which come within the common experience of all. These states need no proof (fig. 14.4). All conscious and subliminal aspects beyond the threshold of consciousness may be directly referred to and understood by them.

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As the greater part of an iceberg is under water, the self which is hidden below the stimulus-response aspect is quantitatively as well as qualitatively by far the more important aspect of the personality. To give the three other aspects their place in education is what this manifesto particularly insists upon.
We find a perfect psychological analysis of these four limbs of consciousness in the Mandukya Upanishad where, in a graded fashion, their inter-relationships are brought out. The whole of this short Upanishad is devoted to this analysis of the Atman or Self, which it first describes as chatuspat (four-limbed). The four states of waking, dreaming, sleeping and general awareness are referred to serially twice over in the text: first by way of their functions, diagnostically, and secondly by their place in consciousness understood from within. In modern terminology we could label them as:
(a) overt-objective of the waking state,
(b) virtual-objective of the dreaming state,
(c) the bright blissfulness of deep sleep and
(d) the pure awareness of the deepest stratum of the consciousness which permeates all the others.

To attain to this last-named seat of consciousness, and to relate it correctly to an educational situation in which the educator and the educand are involved as partners for life so that the influence of the one on the other may be exchanged like a subtle osmosis, requires an expert understanding of the personal factor in its deepest aspects, as well as in its most gross overt expressions. The plus and the minus involved have to be linked up properly if education is not to be a haphazard "muddling through" or "licking into shape" as it has been alluded to complacently by some English writers.

THE ROUSSEAU-EMILE RELATION
Cheap and sensational spirituality of a pseudo-scientific order has reached the West from the East in recent years. In some well-informed circles this has given rise to some legitimate mistrust regarding such matters.

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The mention of the word "Guru" is enough to disturb the general atmosphere in certain contexts or cultural climes. When viewed without undue exaggeration on either side, however, we are able to find everywhere the same human nature working with the same understanding or insight. Humanity is one. This verity is again confirmed when we find that in the domain of educational theory and practice, what has been tacitly accepted in the wisdom-context of the East corresponds with the best flowering of thought in the West. Here again, for us at least concerned with this manifesto, it is a significant fact to note that the Rousseau-Emile relation, as so carefully and laboriously worked out by that much-misunderstood sage of Geneva, corresponds to the Guru-Sisya relationship which has been considered through the ages in India as the main plank in the process of education.

Shorn of the Eastern tendency to be easily exalted in the name of spirituality and to fall into a priori generalisations on the one hand; and on the other, of the opposite tendency in the West to rely too much on the overt aspect of life only - the position as between educator and educand, as conceived by both the sides, reveals in all matters of scientific import, a complete agreement. Two magnets properly laid juxtaposed, and an osmosis arrangement properly set up, need a certain expert understanding, which is all that is implied in this relationship. If educational authorities could see this the future of education in the world could be said to have some hope. Humanity could still reap benefits from education, conceived not haphazardly but according to precise and positive notions.

FOUR STAGES, FOUR KINDS AND FOUR PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOUR INVOLVED IN EDUCATION
At this point we must pause a moment to explain the plan of the rest of this manifesto, which might get lost in the by-paths and ramifications of the forest of educational theories, or in the vast mass of literature which has accumulated in what passes for educational practice, most of which this manifesto boldly calls into question.

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education p224 fig.14a

STRUCTURE FIG. 14.5A

education fig.14.5b

STRUCTURE FIG.14.5B

education fig.14.5C

STRUCTURE 14.5C

education fig 14.5d

STRUCTURE 14.5D

education fig.14.5e

STRUCTURE 14.5E

STRUCTURE FIG.14.5

EXPLANATION OF FIGURE 14.5:
The central figure E represents the norm, which may have different content with the sexes. In the scheme here, the male is mainly kept in mind. Figures A, B, C and D show a striped core or zone which is oriented differently at the four stages of life (ages being shown in brackets). The dotted line shows the chains of behaviour (see Jig. 14:3) natural with each phase.

In A, the Negative Stage, when the relational sense and dependence is strong, automatisms, habits, memory instincts and tender emotions should be availed of by the educator.

In B, the Naturalistic Stage, there should be learning through play, excursions, experiences of a graded natural order and experiments to rouse curiosity.

In C, the Pragmatic Stage, education is through directed socialized activity, leadership training and the ontological approach.

In D, the later Idealistic Stage, higher positive adjustment should be achieved through relationship with the philosopher-guide.

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Humanity as a whole being our prime interest here, a global approach to world education has become an imperative desideratum. If we therefore appear to simplify matters too much by referring to fours in the stages of education as suited to four ages in the educand; and to stretch the same fourfold plan of reference into the discussion of the main kinds of educational theory prevailing at present; and even to think of the actual world of men and action as consisting of fourfold opportunities in the form of set behaviour-patterns that are available, as if ready-made, for every educated person to adopt for himself according to his own type of training - we should not be blamed for being too pigeon-holed in our attitude. The global overall view of education that we are attempting here amply justifies this simplification. When the kinds and categories are clear to the general reader, it will be possible for him to see if this simplification is arbitrary or has been actually justified.

For our own part, in this manifesto we have only followed the lines we developed nearly a quarter of a century ago in the form of a fully-documented thesis which was submitted to the University of Paris (23), and thus received the hallmark of a modern academic seat of learning of good standing. Every statement therein is supported by cross-references, citations and experiments or actual experience of the teaching world (except in the section which comes at the end of the series touching the fourfold opportunity or behaviour patterns which is a fresh addition to the thought on this subject). This work has later being honoured by Dr. H. Wallon. Prof. of the Collège de France, Director of Higher Studies, in his "L'Evolution Psychologique de l'Enfant" (Paris, 1941) by approving reference to it in his chapter in the "Person in Education" (p. 210). These circumstances must be sufficient guarantee for the present that this fourfold simplification is not made without respecting prevailing educational theories, or in violation of correct formalities in presenting a new point of view on such a serious subject. The reader may refer especially to the chapters devoted to type-psychology and the negative, naturalistic, pragmatic and idealistic adjustments involved in education. We have also the good company of Prof. R. Rusk of Dublin University who, in his work "The Philosophical Basis of Education" (London Univ. Press) follows roughly this fourfold classification of educational theory.

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NEGATIVISM IN EDUCATION, A REGULATING PRINCIPLE THROUGHOUT
Rousseau has been laughed at as a sentimental, antisocial solitary or a lost soul. A careful examination of the educational programme of Emile, however, reveals that, while he himself openly recommends negative education for the early stages only, there is provision made for the social adjustment of Emile as he grows to manhood. Rousseau lays the foundations of the modern vogue for experimental education, and even for the project-method, when he makes Emile a carpenter's apprentice. But even when Emile lives a whole day at the farmhouse where the carpenter-Guru is allowed to displace the main Guru for a full unit-period of a day at a time, the main Guru insists on being a fellow-apprentice to learn carpentry with his pupil, so that the sustained influence and bipolarity of the Guru-Sisya relationship may not be broken. The three of them eat together at the farmhouse table, and discover maxims of dialectical social interdependence as represented in the beautiful antique etching, where Emile is taught that "each one respects the labour of others so that his own labour may be respected." The main Guru looks on in the illustration, while the secondary teacher (the upa-Guru) watches approvingly as Emile becomes convinced of this verity by an experimental situation. (24)

A certain unforced, non-interfered-with naturalness in the process that develops by virtue of educative situations that arrive by themselves within the normal or natural course of the growth and adjustment of the pupil, is all that is meant by 'negation' by Rousseau here. Later, when it comes to religious education, the same negative attitude is seen to continue, as we have shown in the quotation given in Part I. In fact, Rousseau's negativism is the same as that so well-known in the Indian context of contemplative education as the "nivritti marga" or "via negativa", as opposed to the "pravritti marga" or "via positiva". This is characteristic of all contemplative disciplines, whether of the East or of the West, and is recognised by mystics and philosophers, not to mention the religious disciplines of monasteries where different doses of this negativism find place.

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The turbulent animal tendencies in the educand need controlling and holding in, even in the most pragmatically-conceived programme of education. This control seems glaringly omitted in modern education, and hence the disastrously wrong results which are already beginning to alarm state educational authorities by way of crime increase, in spite of providing amply for education in their budgets.

NATURALISTIC EDUCATION
Educational theories are many, but for the purposes of this manifesto we are going to view all of them as belonging to one or other of the four main groups that we have referred to. The negative education of Rousseau has already been covered more or less to the extent that space here permits. Naturalistic education is not that of Rousseau, though he has been mistaken for a man who stressed nature. Nature for him, as we have said in Part I, was not just nature, as in the expression "back to nature", but Nature with the capital letter, standing for a spiritual principle of absolutist value. This we have tried to make clear already in order not to mix up Rousseau's naturalism with that of Herbert Spencer, who may be said more correctly to be its representative. We shall tabulate here the distinction between them for ready reference:

ROUSSEAU
(i) Subjective, Idealist
(ii) Against Society
(iii) Puts Goodness and other values foremost
(iv) Attached to Pure, ethical values

SPENCER
(i) Empirical, Realist
(ii) Education for Society
(iii) Cultural education given a secondary status after utilitarian education, as education for leisure
(iv) Attached to hedonistic ethics

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In spite of these striking items of contrast, there are certain features of naturalistic adjustment as understood by Spencer, which follow the same lines as those of Rousseau. Rousseau envisaged for his Emile a programme of adjustment to utilitarian social conditions. It was thus that he thought of making him an apprentice to a carpenter who was to be a second teacher under the master influence of the first. The secret of Rousseau was that his idealism had fitted within it, without conflict and unitively, that correct dose of a utilitarian programme natural to the age of the pupil. Therefore to label Rousseau as non-utilitarian or anti-social would be not to understand his unitive methodology, which held the secret of a vertical ascending series of values, without the principle of mutual exclusion or contradiction. As a small circle could lie within a larger one, without exclusion or duality between them, so the contemplative dialectical method allows of two positions being treated unitively, both of which could co-exist without mutual compromise. The laws of nature were to be understood by the pupil through direct experience rather than from teaching. The experimental approach was, however, common to both these great educationists. The education of nature through things, as Rousseau would have put it, was what the naturalistic education of Spencer amounted to. The maximum that we derive from educational institutions based on this manifesto is that, where boys or girls between 13 and 17 are brought up, ample provision must be made for contacting nature and observing natural phenomena and for plying trades like carpentry or weaving, which would give a social sense of self-sufficiency and dignity by way of a horizontal orientation and balancing of personal tendencies. No direct affiliation to the harsh world of competition and profit should ever be implied in it.

PRAGMATIC EDUCATION
When we come to pragmatism, whose representative may be said to be John Dewey, we see that it is a natural consequence of the naturalism of Herbert Spencer and Rousseau who, as we have seen, makes allowances for the need for social adjustment.

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Within a larger scheme of idealism, they could be considered as pragmatists. The project-method of the active school is reflected in the carpentry apprenticeship that Rousseau himself recommends. More than in the case of Spencer, the utilitarian social adjustment envisaged by Dewey is without any rational idealism, even that of a Descartes or a Kant. These old-world philosophers mean nothing to Dewey, nor can he appreciate those negative elements which Rousseau finds important. A modified or revised form of stimulus-response psychology and a practical, realistic and even empirical approach to life are implied in Dewey.

We shall take but one or two quotations from Dewey to bring out the contrast. In defining the character to be built in the pupil, he writes:

"In general, 'character' signifies the power to act in society, the organised capacity to function socially; this signifies...social intelligence, power of execution, social interest and sense of social responsibility". (25)

Again, he makes the nature of pragmatic education more clear:

"The great thing to keep in mind then, regarding the introduction into the school of various forms of active occupations, is that through them the active spirit of the school is renewed. It has a chance to affiliate itself with life, to become the child's habitat where he learns through directed living, instead of being only a place to learn lessons having an abstract and remote reference to some possible living to be done in the future. It gets a chance to be a miniature community, an embryonic society." (26)

Rousseau would not have disapproved of these remarks, except perhaps in the shutting out of the future of the pupil in favour of a very real present, and a social adjustment that is too horizontalized in its content. Rousseau expressly selects carpentry alone for Emile, so that his pupil could ply this 'honest' human trade in the self-sufficient loneliness of his own home under the single teacher's supervision, which is kept important as a condition applicable to the whole process of education.

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Social values, thus over-emphasised in education, tend to exclude some of the noblest aspirations of the human heart, and it is on such programmes of education as envisaged by Dewey that mass education in American schools still thrives. Pragmatic education has signally failed. To avoid its mistakes is the moral we learn here. While self-sufficiency in social orientation is an ideal worthy of preservation, full affiliation to economic, social or political value-systems as they prevail in the harsh world of competition and strife must always be modified by a dose of negativism and idealism proper to the age, type or sex of the pupils in different types of institutions for pragmatic adjustment in education.

LATER IDEALISM IN EDUCATION
The last of the four phases of educational adjustment may be distinguished as later idealism. Higher values, implying personal tastes, the love of art, moral, religious or spiritual sentiments, have to be cultivated here. Here also, various patterns are possible, and the writers who have faced this aspect of education, where character and moral or spiritual education is involved, have been few. Ribot and Payot have approached it, giving primacy to 'Passion' or 'Will' respectively.

Even these few have approached the subject with differing ends in view. Some think of it in terms of a hobby, treating idealistic adjustment as of secondary importance and characterising it as education for leisure. Others speak of the end as happiness, a vague term which can include hedonism. Its content has yet to be made more clear and definite. The German idealists would think of education in terms of the will to live or the will to power, or even reduce the world to will - as with Nietzsche, Hegel and Schopenhauer respectively. The pessimistic view of some would differ from the optimism of others; and to bring all under one caption would not be easy. However, all involve a positive adjustment of the tendencies towards a personal or human goal. Some may have the Superman in view.

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These, when understood in the unitive context of this manifesto, could still be treated as having a common trend which, we could say, belongs to that part of the adjustment of the tendencies of the personal factor which we have marked as the positive, prospective and intelligent.

IDEALISTIC DIAGNOSTICS
Some of the marks of an idealistically educated man might be critical acumen, analysis, precision, and a clarity free from emotional or instinctive compromising traits which come from the negative side; expertness (called daksata in the Gita) in dealing with situations, either intellectual, ideological or actual, which would face the person at a given time; a keen sense of justice, an intelligent savoir-faire and an equal sympathy for all mankind and even for all creation. Wisdom training in the use of the higher faculty of intuitive reasoning called dialectics would be the crowning attainment of a programme of idealistic education. Such a love of Wisdom could be a master-passion or a final act of will, which could burn up all lesser dross in the form of petty life-interests or instinctive or emotional dross, and lead to the total passion in which the passion becomes identified with the person himself. The filling of the personality with the full human content of the idea of humanity or the ideal or perfect man, with all the specifically distinguishing virtues which constitute human nature, may be said to mark the highest limit of idealistic education.

Into the possible varieties which human life throws up in actuality we shall not look at present, lest we should see in it possibilities or varieties that vast hell cannot hold. Starting with the double suicide pacts of lovers, martyrdom, crime, gambling or cheating (as the Bhagavad Gita would include in the list of persons revealing traits of Absolutism), all the Othellos and Desdemonas, Hernanis and Doña Sols, mystics lost in agony or ecstasy, those with ideas that are fixed for life, people of vengeance, hatred or devotion unto

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death, the Al Capones or bandit chiefs, war-lords, bookies, racketeers, humorous actors like Charlie Chaplin, great comics, clowns, inventors, as also the rake and the scholar (which is a natural combination), Da Vinci, the adventurer and explorer, a Pascal whose intelligence itself kills him prematurely, a Shelley, a Keats or a Burns or an Amiel whose sensibility overleaps its own limits - all come for consideration under positively or over-positively adjusted personal tendencies.

MASS RE-EDUCATION
There is more literature about the eccentrics rather than the normals, which latter often lie buried in neglect by their very normality. Freaks attract more attention. True heredity is taken for granted. These other normal humans constitute a fund of positive tendencies still available to humanity for canalisation and direction to great ends, if a programme of mass re-education in suitable colonies for young or old could be started.
What we have called the normal in this over-strung, overworked, sleepless, passionate or wilful mass of denizens of the human world is given only to the natural, contemplative, unitive vision of the dialectical philosopher to see. He can cancel-out extremes in the personal factor, or accentuations of one set of tendencies at the expense of others. The synergic ambivalence or dichotomy involving antinomian principles in life-expression (all these terms being familiar in different departments of philosophy, theology, neurology or psychology), when merged into sameness gives the norm in education.

Maladjustment in education is the most general danger to be avoided. In this task, state programmes, because of lack of a proper, complete or scientific theory of education are, to say the least, not helpful at all at present. Juvenile delinquency and crime are alarmingly on the increase in the very countries which provide amply for education in their budgets. The remedy is misapplied. The plant is manured or watered wrongly by gardeners who do not understand their job.

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Young saplings lack protection, and chill breezes or desert winds play havoc with them. This manifesto therefore pleads for the understanding of this problem of World Education on the revised terms indicated throughout, which are mainly a protest against what obtains in the name of education for humanity as a whole at present. The four stages of education are schematically explained by fig. 14.5; the norm belonging to educational adjustment as a whole being given for comparison.

SEX VARIATIONS AND EDUCATION
This manifesto would be incomplete if it omitted to refer to the subject of sex in connection with education. Rousseau gives it separate treatment in his book "Sophie the Woman". To single out the traits distinguishing woman from man is a delicate matter because many men would have to be included among women, and vice-versa. The generaliser would be blamed by both parties for the slightest partiality. Silence on the subject would be both chivalrous and wise. Such a double disapproval could at least thus be put off. But the dialectical approach need not fall into the error of partiality. Let us start with the safe over-all statement that man and woman are equally endowed with perfect justice by Nature or God. The woman has the soul of the man she loves; and the man likewise, however brave and masculine outwardly, can at times scarcely hide the woman within him. Good taste does not permit these truths to be stated blatantly, but cartoon strips break into the conventional reserve in such matters, letting many a cat out of the bag. Jokes about married life occupy odd corners of newspapers, but the relation is never discussed seriously in public as a science. Except when armed with dialectics, this game becomes impossible to play. But dialectics here has the fullest scope for application in daily social life. Let us repeat the first law thus more completely: men and women enjoy equal gifts, but many men are to be treated as conforming to a woman's pattern of personality and many women as conforming to a man's pattern of personality.

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education p234 fig.14.6a

STRUCTURE P234 FIG.14.6A

education p234 fig.14.6b

STRUCTURE P234 FIG.14.6B

education p234 fig 14.6c

STRUCTURE 234C

A: Girl 13-17
Maiden-meditativeness and free fancy.
Lack of interest in public events.
Relational sensibility high.
Suggestibility and easy educability.

B: Norm for both sexes
Applicable at all phases, not depending upon age.

C: Boy 13-14
Objective, active, cowboy pattern, relational sense crude.
Suggestibility more an exception. Has to learn the hard way by experience or natural consequences.

Fig. 14.6: SEX VARIATIONS

Explanation of Figure 14.6: Figures A and C give the broadest sex variations between the ages of 13 and 17. Many intermediate variations are, of course, likely to be in evidence as we actually meet boys or girls, because they merge into the general context Only the she-girl student and the he-boy student are represented here. The second generalization which we would make is that if we take the boy and the girl at adolescence there are differences in their innate personalities which make themselves evident only to the observant educator.

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The girl would generally tend to conform to the vertical negative pattern or type and the boy to the vertical positive.
Taking the four phases together, and confining our attention only to what interests the educator as an over-all normative picture that would hold true in all the four kinds of education, and making allowances for physical differences, the boy's and the girl's personalities may be said to have the same emotional or intellectual phases when qualitative or quantitative aspects are viewed globally. Joan of Arc led an army; Hypateia taught philosophy and higher mathematics to the best Alexandrian philosophers of her time; Portia lacked no lawyer's acumen; and Elizabeth was referred to as "imperial votaress, in maiden meditation, fancy-free" by Shakespeare - and yet she could be a great ruler like Victoria. The adventures of a Hernani are balanced by those of Doña Sol. A Martha complements the gifts of a Mary. The freak here is hardly distinguishable from the norm. Taking our stand on the personality in its most synthetic sense, we are bound to say that, all in all, in terms of the content of consciousness or educability, the sexes are to be treated as essentially the same, except that the adolescent girl is more educable that the boy.

Girls too in boarding schools are known to behave like tomboys and worse than boys, and to play the role of bandits as well as men. As far as this manifesto is concerned, it is neither interested in making a man more of a he-man or a woman more a she-woman. There are no sex differences to be encouraged in the absolute neutrality of the human personality when it is correctly attached to vertical values which we conceive as the central norm for the whole of education.

FOUR PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOUR WITH CORRESPONDING INSTITUTIONAL OPPORTUNITIES
If men and women have innate and outer personalities which alternate or change phases differently; if there are types which are statically fixed or dynamically flexible in endless variety; if all the varied kinds of educational opportunity or

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preparation for the different patterns of behaviour available for pupils are to be kept in mind - we would be obliged in education to think of an endless variety of institutions to meet these requirements. If the meeting of all requirements correctly is an impossible task, as it is on the face of it, the same fourfold plan underlying the process could here be relied on again with advantage in simplifying the situation at least, so as to enable us to discuss the subject grosso modo. We could think of a negative type of school where boys and girls, living separately, as in some of the new residential schools or retreats now attempted by some gifted educators in Switzerland. The modern Emile or Sophie could have personal co-educational attention bestowed on him or her by a Guru or Guru-couple, who would be a Rousseau or a Hypateia to them according to the laws and principles implied in the best type of education. The naturalistic school could emulate the model of some of the public schools of England, but avoiding their rough excesses under an Arnold or a Sanderson of Oundle that Wells wrote about. The American type of high-school, with new features incorporated, would come near to what is desirable in the type of educational institution called pragmatic, if only the tension of horizontalism could be mitigated a little more out of respect for the vertical idealism that should finally prevail in education.

A World University of Higher Studies where the professors would be in free and daily intercourse with students, rising to the standards of the Collège de France, the Institute of Higher Studies of Princeton or the model of the newly-started Committee of Social Thought of Chicago, would be desirable for later idealistic adjustment, when revised in the light of the indications given here. In evolving such models, the Indian soil, by its long tradition of contemplation, is a very favourable field.

CHARACTEROLOGY AND TYPE PSYCHOLOGY
Educational theory and practice are at present dominated by the important place given to brass-instrument measurements.

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From the time of the Alfred Binet tests of intelligence and the IQ test which the modern pragmatic educator is so proud of, to the Rorschach tests with ink-stains applied to the eidetic personality; the volume and variety of educational measurements have grown into large proportions. Psycho-biology - with experiments and normative methods of enquiry that are worse than empiricism - and Watsonian behaviourism, which goes as far as denying any innate factor such as mind, are now in vogue. Gestalt psychology brings its own contribution based on the configurations that influence learning, and what is called psychological profiling is being mentioned.

Psychoanalysis and evolutionary thinkers who advance the theory that "ontogeny is a repetition of phylogeny" put forward theories of the ambivalent subconscious mind, which would divide the personality into two halves or polarities at the basis of conflicts, complexes and repressions. Extroversion and introversion are spoken of; and the cerebrotonic and viscerotonic types have found a place in the general literature of modern writers; and there is a good deal of "little knowledge" in regard to many such pseudo-scientific concepts in the mouths of ill-informed persons who rely on 'digests' for their education. Just to give a sample of the variety of theories about types in this field, we extract below the following from Dr. Claparède's "How to Diagnose the Aptitudes of School Children" (p. 233)

Binet Subjectivists Objectivists
Jung Introverts Extroverts
James Ideologists Positivists
Ostwald Classicists Romanticists
De Maday Workers Fighters
Nietzsche Appollonians Dionysians
Schiller Sentimentals Naïfs
Poincaré Intuitives Logicians
(Geometrical) (Analytical)
Lippman Gnostics Technics
Pascal Refined-minded Geometrically-minded
Duhem Abstractionists Concretionists

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One has to be familiar with the philosophy or psychology of each of these authors to be able to see finally if we agree with their scheme or not. We shall not undertake this almost impossible task here. We do note, however, that all of them reduce types into two reciprocally-conceived pairs, and that we are able to discover through their variety a common principle running through them, based on horizontal variations of subjectivity or objectivity, or variations of positive or negative states of consciousness on what we have called a vertical scale. To extract the broad outline from all these notions of type, let us content ourselves with quoting from some well-known authorities, just to make it clear that the scheme of correlation that we have systematically kept in mind throughout this manifesto holds good in this domain of type-psychology also. When types are thus unitively understood, the basis for comparing stages of adjustment in the educand, and the kind of education most suited to each stage also become clear. Jung defines the meaning of his terms 'extroversion' and 'introversion' as follows:

"We should say there is extroversion wherever we find that it is to the outer world, to the object, that the individual gives his fundamental interest. There is introversion, on the contrary, when the objective world undergoes a kind of degradation or a lower estimation to the advantage of his own self.... This concentration on thought, that is to say, onto the inner world, is nothing other than introversion."

Quotations could be endlessly multiplied to show that the two lines of correlation could be used with validity, even when we try to follow types mentioned by other writers such as Hinkle, Max Freyd, Jaspers, Kretschmer, Pende Klages, McDougall and others. Dr H. Wallon, who traces the neurological components of character, recognizes the principle of ambivalence which, he says, "plays in conduct the role of a stimulant or a reactive factor" He further introduces the expression "surcompensation", which is a factor which intervenes by its plus or minus in the behaviour of the subject.

The psycho-dynamism involved in types of educands follows the broad lines of what we have accepted as the basis

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of the personal factor even from Part I of this manifesto. The following paragraph taken from Dr. Adolphe Ferrière's book, "Type Psychology" (28) must suffice to give us a fairly complete, though somewhat imaginative, picture of the dynamism involved here:

"A particular rhythm for each individual carries him at a certain time to the front, towards the future to be conquered; at other times to the rear, towards the past, with which it is necessary to conserve its contact. The future often represents effort and risk, or in any case the unknown; the past appears in general as repose and security, the known world in which one lived and which one had left. Certain pupils have the taste for taking risks, and their nature tends towards progress; certain others who might be sickly or hereditarily enfeebled, or more simply speaking, gifted with a lesser vitality, remain infantile and take refuge, so to say, in the past; it is said of these pupils that they hang on to the apron strings of their mothers. The majority, however, oscillate between the two poles, the efforts for constructing the future being followed by periods of repose, where infantilism once again predominates. This is normal. One should not be surprised, provided one of these phases does not predominate too long over the other, for the effort continued too long leads to nervous strain and the breaking away from the healthy elements belonging to the past; and the infantilism that is too prolonged engenders stagnation and misoneism (fear of the new)."

The psycho-dynamics of character and type, whether in its more fixed or still-flexible aspects, thus may be seen to follow the general lines of the personal factor that we have integrated in revalued terms so far in this manifesto. (29)

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STRUCTURE FIG. 14.7

Explanation of Figure 14.7:
In each case the striped zone marked A is the dominant, while the dotted zone marked B is recessive. These are not to be confused with innate or superficial aspects, which have to be determined by reference to the four quadrants of I - overt, II - virtual, III - subconscious, and IV - general awareness, as marked on the central figure which represents the Norm (and in fig. 14.4).

education fig 14.7a

Figure A, the Negative-Subjective represents innocent introverts and infantile types,

education p240 fig 14.7b

Figure B, Negative-Objective, day-dreaming Calibans, Athelstanes or sleeping Kumbhakarnas or opium eaters,

education p240 fig.14.7c

Figure C, Positive-Objective, extroverts, fighters, pugilists, war-mongers, desperate killers or bandit chiefs; and

educationp240 fig.14.7d

Figure D, Positive-Subjective, contemplatives in agony or ecstasy of over-sensitivity (e.g. Keats, Amiel).

educationp240 fig.14.7e

Figure E, Norm, Perfective Balances

THE AVAILABLE OPPORTUNITIES AND READY-MADE PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOUR
The 'harsh otherness' of the world of objective humanity, into

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which each one of us has to fit, whether one likes it or not, is a fact of life that cannot be by-passed except by absolute dialectical wisdom. The incompatibility of husband and wife, or of master and servant, one's gifts or abilities within and the occupation one is forced to adopt, not being able to be true to oneself under the stress of outer circumstances, to be a monstrous misfit in life, to miss one's proper vocation, to be frustrated and to be let down by friends, to find love not responded to, to suffer from boredom, dishonour or self-pity, to be caught in restless toil - these are all due to some sort of incompatibility between the outer and the inner tendencies of life.

Young lovers enter into suicide pacts, a majority of them, as has been noted, with joy on their faces, because what would unite them in death tends to separate them cruelly in actual life. Incompatibility of outside and inside is the tragedy here. Positively-adjusted rich personalities are prone to this kind of tragedy, and untoward death is their normal fate. It is the penalty they pay for an over-developed aspect of the personality. "Those whom the gods love, die young". Hamlet has an absolute conscience which could not live in a relativist outer world. Likewise Macbeth, Othello and King Lear had their price to pay to the tragic factor called the "harsh otherness", both within them as also outside. The choice of a right profession for a young man or woman calls for a morality based on Absolute Wisdom, which the science of dialectics alone gives. All else is fraught with great fear, as the Bhagavad Gita would put it.

Even when we have been quite right with the educand in giving him due importance and respecting all his interests as they unfold in him, there remains the problem of fitting him into the mould available to him in the actual world. Actuality is rigid and cannot be changed overnight. "Take it or leave it" is the condition prevailing in the world of opportunities for good life. The dreamy contemplative must pay his rent or his coal bills in time in a cold country if he is to survive even one winter; and in warmer climes, the choice of employment, though not so rigid, is there with a general economic drought which one has to survive as an honourable human.

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Poverty and indolence are the enemies here. As a result much laziness and hypocrisy passes for holiness in India, though in the name of contemplation much is worth saving in spite of all. Climate again can kill contemplation both by favour as by cruelty. Society is not so simple as it used to be, and the range of professions with their exactingly precise requirements, involving being laid off, retrenched or fired at short notice, is ever staring in the face of young job-hunters who have to go from one bureau of employment to another in mad competitive haste - which is enough to stifle all quieter contemplative attitudes in them. Rules and paper formalities are on the increase, and civilization may be seen to be at the brink of some precipice. Wrought with fear and mistrust, interested propaganda, prevailing suspicion; with spy-hunting and the electric chair for not keeping one's own secrets; besides frontier, passport and paper difficulties preventing man from living simply - the problems that education may soon have to solve may become too much for us. Before a young man actually appears for an interview for a job, the whole complexion of chance might change in such a way as to defeat the best efforts of a decade. As Rousseau puts it graphically, it is not enough for an artist to be expert with his brush; he has to take a cab and go from door to door before he could be a success through his vocation as a painter. Education as a preparation for life is more and more fraught with uncertainties, and what was preparation a month ago might go against the person one month later.

If wisdom of a higher order is to help us even here, let us listen again to the voice of contemplation, though it is a voice lost in the wilderness, and still small in character. The noisy world cannot be tranquil enough to listen to it, but it is yet there for us to hearken unto.

THE HIGH AND THE LOW ROADS
Rousseau's "Emile" stopped abruptly with the happy marriage of Emile and Sophie, but Rousseau had reserved the tragic aspects of the story for continuation in the novel he began but

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never completed, called "Emile and Sophie, or The Solitary Ones". Their natures separate them, and Emile has to wander about seeking jobs in various places. The solitary wanderings are full of suffering, whose counterpart was also in Sophie, who suffered because of her infidelity. Rousseau makes Emile earn a living by the very honest trade that he once apprenticed him for and, instead of widening the tragedy, Rousseau's idea in the projected novel was to reunite them, reconciled once again with happy reminiscences of their early love, after years of cruel separation. The life-tendencies which became horizontalized through the agency of the 'harsh otherness' of actuality, are vanquished and won over in their model cases by the triumph of the tender, unitive, reconciliating way of wisdom. Rousseau here wants to indicate that contemplation can triumph, given human understanding in the light of dialectical wisdom.

Wisdom is the foster-mother who consoles Boethius desponding in prison. This foster-mother called contemplative wisdom is still waiting for humanity to look up to her face to hear the words of consolation. She can still speak to humanity, if it would only listen. In the interests of the world's proletariat, the commercial class, the daring conqueror of space and the seeker after contemplative quiet, there are still legitimate opportunities for life-expression. For each one of them there is a pattern of behaviour that would fit, if only contemplation could be brought to bear on the chaotic world situation.

CONCLUSION
Rousseau called himself a citizen of Geneva, while he conformed to a quiet contemplative pattern of behaviour rather than to one of a man of action.

The Bhagavad Gita holds up before us these two patterns of behaviour as counterparts in the Krishna who is the Yogesvara (Lord of Yoga) and in the Arjuna of the last verse, where he is portrayed beside Krishna, bearing the bow and arrow. In our days, contemplation itself has to be revalued and restated more unitively.

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Wisdom, which is the highest human value, need not support mere quietism, nor should it be expected to counter the menace of the atom bomb by a frontal attack. The truth that shall make us free is lodged in the human heart, and sound education has to bring it into open life-expression. This calls for a supreme white heat of wholehearted earnestness within each, which should be reflected with similar intensity in the soul of humanity.

The "Citizen of Geneva" must be a "Citizen of the World" and one and the same personality must combine the possibilities in behaviour of a gendarme and a quiet contemplative. Arjuna was given the alternative, but whether he chose it or not is not stated. Emile and Sophie were tearfully reconciled, but no more of the story has been written. The suicide pact of youthful lovers is the way that romance reaches tragic levels, which still indicates the starting point of absolutism, where no consideration is greater. God, referred to as the fifth factor above the four factors in the Gita (XVIII. 14) - these being the basis (adhisthanam), the actor (karta), the instruments (karanam) and varied possibilities of action (prithagvidham-vividhas-cestah) - has himself to be included on revised and revalued terms, with a fully scientific status given to him, without which all our calculations must go wrong. A scientifically-conceived God ought to be acceptable even to so-called 'materialists' and 'atheists', and if not, so much the worse for them. Perverse orthodoxy may likewise be ignored. Rousseau was obsessed by the thought of his enemies who would slander him even after his death, and Krishna in many parts of the Gita complains of the disadoption and mistrust of his high teaching. The views set forth in this manifesto, we feel, may be considered too good to be true. Humanity, which must have profited by the sacrifices of great souls like Socrates, Jesus, Joan of Arc and Hypateia, may be expected to have become more sobered now in this matter of throwing stones or slinging mud. With all its faults or imperfections, this manifesto thus goes out to serve at least as a basis for the discussion, if not for the revision on drastic lines, of World Education.

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NOTES

1. P. 2, "Educational Abstracts". Sept. 1956, Vol. VIII, No. 7.

2. P. 166, "L'Evolution Créatrice", Payot, Paris.

3. Sankara Bhasya, II. 10.

4. See also the commentary on the Bhagavad Gita by the present author.

5. See Gita.XVI.16, 21.

6. For a complete and correct exposition of "The Personal Factor in the Educative Process", see the work so entitled, submitted as a thesis at the Sorbonne by the present writer in 1933, which was very honourably mentioned by the syndicate of the University.

7. Emile. Book I.

8. Ibid.

9. Ibid.. Book IV.

10. Ibid.. Book V.

11. "L'Evolution Créatrice", p. 109.

12. 3rd Edition, London, p. 486.

13. Vrin, Paris, 1933.

14. "How We Think", Heath, New York, p. 79.

15. "Essay on Passions", Alcan, Paris, 1923, p. 179.

16. "Emile". Book I.

17. Cf. "Le Caractère et l'Education Morale": Queyrat, Paris, pp. 122-25.

18. E.g. Achelle-Delmas and Marcel Boll, in their work with this title, Paris, 1922.

19. See "Man the Unknown", by Dr. Alexis Carrel.

20. See, Listener, London, Nov. 29, 1956.

21. See article on "The Theory of Knowledge" in "Encyclopaedia Britannica".

22. "The Sources of a Science of Education", New York, 1929, pp. 67-68.

23. "Le Facteur Personel dans le Processus Educatif", Vrin Paris, 1932

24. In the old edition of "Emile".

25. "School and Society", University of Chicago Press, p. 3.

26. Ibid, p. 15.

27.Cf. Claparède, p. 232.

28. p. 30, Geneva.

29. For fuller justification of this claim see the main work on the subject by the present writer, already cited .

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PART IV
RELIGION AND ETHICS

15
ONE RELIGION
When people are seen to be bound together by common articles of faith or by patterns of behaviour in group life, we recognize what we call religion, to which the belief and the behaviour belong together. To give an example, if some people go to church on Sundays, while others do not do so but prefer to go to their churches on Saturday, we are at once able to say that there is some difference in their religious behaviour. We could question them, after observing this difference, to find if there are other specific characteristics by which we could classify their adherence to one or other religious group. We have no right to attribute to them characteristics that are neither observed in their behaviour nor known to form a body of beliefs belonging to such a group. Thus, Trinitarians will tell you that they believe in three aspects of divine manifestation. Unitarians will deny that, and would prefer to represent themselves as believing only in one aspect of divinity. We would be perfectly justified in not mixing these sects, and in treating them as belonging to distinct religious groupings.

One has either to be objective or subjective in fixing the specific characteristics of any religious expression.

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If one should say, "I believe in Christ, but I neither go to church nor behave in any way which is in conformity with this belief,we cannot classify him at all. We can at best recognize in him a pseudo-religionist.

CLASSIFICATION OF RELIGIOUS GROUPS
Keeping in mind this method of diagnosing and classifying visible religious formations or believers in doctrines about some spiritual value dear to each religion, if we should look round and try to recognize the religious groups in this world,we could at once make the most striking of classifications of all religious people into two broad groups. There is no religion which does not offer some consolation or happiness to its followers. In other words, unhappiness cannot be held out as an ideal or end to be attained by any religion at all. Nobody aspires for unhappiness. It is impossible to think of such a negative value as motivating any serious group of religionists. We could of course find freaks who might insist on saying that they are aspiring for unhappiness. If we should admit happiness to be the common ideal or end in view, motivating any religion whatsoever, it would only be deriving a corollary from this general statement to say that every religion has got some high human value on which it pins its faith. The Buddhist speaks in terms of nirvana, and the Christian in terms of a life eternal where one could be as perfect as the Father in heaven is perfect. Hindu salvation consists of escaping rebirth altogether, and the true believer in Islam wants to obey the will of Allah, the Most High, so that on the Day of Judgement Allah should be pleased with him instead of being angry. Jehovah and Jupiter or Zeus are also Most High Gods of other prophetic religions. The Prophetic Religions are those that are concerned with an event in the future called the Day of Judgement, on which they have to face God and give a good account of themselves. There are religions which have this apocalyptic touch more pronounced than others. When this futuristic orientation is weak, we begin to recognize certain religious formations whose unity lies in merely following past habits and conventions.

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Members of such groups are often referred to as 'pagans' or 'unbelievers', fit to be treated contemptuously by the groups who claim to be true believers. Thus, we begin to recognize in religious life two dominant groups: those who believe in the Day of Judgement, and those who do not give importance to that event in the future. These are characterized by the terms 'prophetic' and 'pagan' respectively.

FURTHER DIFFERENTIATIONS
After making this initial distinction between prophetic and non-prophetic or pagan religions, we could examine other items of belief or patterns of behaviour as implying some value conducive to the happiness of the group in question. Viewed in this way, we could distinguish other so-called pagans who do not believe in a God representing the side of light or intelligence, but who tend to substitute material objects or elementals in the place of the highest of intelligent principles. They go under the name of animists or materialists. The Ionian and Eleatic philosophers of pre-Socratic times belong to such a group. Pythagoras himself was not recognized by the Athenians, and was treated contemptuously because of
his glorification of mere mathematical entities or values.

There were also those who were nearer to the side of matter than to the side of the spirit, who were classified philosophically as hylozoists. The values that they attached importance to in regulating their lives were not spiritual entities at all, but tended to glorify matter as against spirit.

From Thales through Heraclitus to Empedocles of Agrigentum, we have a whole hierarchy of such animists or hylozoists who were essentially materialists, and who are thus to be ranged on the opposite side of what was respectable in the eyes of philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. Thomism and Augustinianism had their origins in Dionysius the Areopagite, as also in Plotinus of the Alexandrian Neo-Platonist context. Abraham, the common ancestor of Christianity and Islam, laid down that idolatry was completely reprehensible - even as bad as stealing or murder. Hindus would certainly stand condemned completely in the light of

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such an uncompromisingly prophetic attitude. Unbelievers could be trampled under elephants' feet in view of the teaching of the Quran understood in such a light. Many events in the history of India could be cited as examples of this kind of one-sided fervour. Hinduism, however, is not without its insistence on a God representing light or wisdom rather than the forces of darkness.

SCEPTICISM AND BELIEF
Now, if we turn our eyes in the opposite direction and see what the scientific attitude has meant in the realm of religious belief, we can easily concede that there have been many martyrs on the side of scepticism, as well as on that of belief. Giordano Bruno and Galileo Galilei were martyrs to science as against the early Christians, who were martyrs to belief when persecuted by Romans. If it is possible for martyrdom to exist on both the sides of scepticism and of belief, we can easily see how they form a part of a human nature which accommodates them both together in accentuated forms in the same phenotype called homo sapiens.

Buddhism is a religion which is essentially non-theological, but this does not mean that rational or ethical values are not glorified and held up as absolute values, as dear to the believers in them as any other, theological, divinity could be. In other words, it is a high value conducive to happiness that is to be found within the essential content of any religion, whether theological or rational. Each religion wants to avoid suffering and to promise happiness through some belief or behaviour. Seen from this perspective, even communism could be said to be a religion, or at least a surrogate of religion - only it promises, instead of heaven, a classless society or a dictatorship of the proletariat. It is possible in this way to compare all religions whether known as sceptic, rational, or as based on a belief in God.

All religions must have a norm in which an absolute value is held up as the most important one within its system of reference. If this structural norm common to all religions,

253

whether orthodox or heterodox, could be visualized in a true scientific spirit of open and objective criticism, it would be possible for us to establish a comparative study of all expressions involving a high value to which both sceptics and believers might happen to be equally attached. Religion would thus include all possible surrogates of religion, and even what passes for scepticism (which, as we have seen, claims its own martyrs). Scepticism is a form of negative belief which can be as intensely fanatical as any other so-called belief, which mere label should not mislead us. There are believers who pass for sceptics, and vice-versa.

UNDERLYING STRUCTURAL UNITY
When we are able to take a normalized position between the extremes of the two major tendencies which the Bhagavad Gita calls the black and the white courses - distinguishing the two rival paths in spiritual progress throughout the long course of human history - we shall be able to see that every religion has at its core a promised value for which one avoids what is taboo and adopts what is recommended. What is profane in one religion need not correspond to what is taboo in another. To a Muslim eating pork is taboo, but to a Sikh it can be a qualification of some sort at least. Long hair is likewise laudable for a Sikh to wear; while shaving one's head is orthodox to the other of the two rival faiths, historically developing like bodies and antibodies in bacteriology. The same historical conditions can produce both the body and the antibody. Accentuating one tendency can result in sowing the seeds of another. Thus, idolatrous and iconoclastic tendencies add vim and vigour to each other, and fan feuds by ambivalent exaggerations when over-stressed.

What we wish to achieve by these varied examples is merely to point to a way in religious life which avoids
unilateral exaggerations or excesses. Pontius Pilate said, "What is Truth?" Truth is not even a two-sided affair, but its polyvalence conforms to at least a four-dimensional quaternian structural pattern. All religions have premonitions of this verity distinguishable in one passage or another of their revealed or sacred books, which could be brought into view

254

through the study of comparative religion. Modern science has brought us to the same structural pattern seen in terms of the four-dimensional universe which is at present being accepted from the side of physics. Even from the side of metaphysics, the same fourfold structural pattern prevails.

A normative integrated Science of the Absolute can alone fully reveal the common structural features underlying all religions, so that the believer in one religious formation could see eye to eye with his rival in the opposite camp, even as the blind men in the fable could reach agreement only when they could examine the totality of the elephant about which each of them had known only some particular aspect. It is the total structure of the absolute value of happiness implied in all religions - at least in structural outline - that can save the situation, avoiding by such unitive understanding all conflicts in the name of a high spiritual value representing the common aspirations of all human beings, however different they might be in temperament. Viewed in this light, humanity can belong to only one religion, which is that of Absolute Happiness through an absolutist way of life. When the underlying unity of all religions is thus made evident to all intelligent men, holy wars will become outmoded as not in keeping with the dignity of the human race, which biology itself qualifies as being endowed with understanding by the term 'homo sapiens'.

255

16
ETHICS NORMALIZED
Ethics concerns good behaviour. Beside oneself, there is the other man who is also involved in the same picture. One is asked to be good to oneself and to somebody else at one and the same time. This is the dialectical basis of all ethics. Sometimes this other man or woman involved in one's ethics could be a father, a mother or a wife, or all of humanity treated as brothers in the eye of God. One is called upon to behave rightly towards his religion, or even towards the state treated as a personification, either legal, moral or spiritual, according to the intensity or seriousness of the relationship within a utilitarian or idealistic frame of reference. The welfare state calls for its own particular code of ethics or morals, while monarchical loyalties could attain to fanatic fervour.

To bring this subject into the scope of a universal and most generalized outlook from a global standpoint, the first desideratum of good ethics would be the breaking through of parochial or closed, cribbed and confined limitations or stultifying frontiers which, through egocentricity, persons or groups of persons are likely to create between themselves and the other man whom we have tried to distinguish above.

256

Duality in interests between oneself and the other man is the fecund cause of all violations of ethics. Good ethics therefore consists in a way of life in which oneself and the other man, thus understood as dialectical counterparts, are made to belong together to a unified or unitive context in such a way that conflict between them would become impossible. It is a unilateral or horizontal treatment of counterparts that can spell disasters big or small in life, thus tending to shock rudely the norm of all ethics, which is the Absolute Self common to the two abstracted and generalized personalities to be first distinguished for any systematic principles of ethics to be developed in the interests of both of them at once. In other words, unilateral ethics spells disaster, and unitive ethics is the only ethics worth the name.

A mother tells her child to be good, but the child cannot visualize clearly what the mother means by 'good'. In the church, the mother herself hears the same talk of goodness that she cannot understand either, with the added prospect of going to heaven dangling before her eyes. Torrents of tears from the eyes of children have drenched the soil, both at home and in the classroom, as well as in the Sunday school, for which no one is responsible - especially not the child. The responsibility is rather to be located with the large number of ethical theories presented to a confused humanity ever since such a subject began to be formulated in various textbooks of the world.

We learn in college textbooks of Platonic, Nichomachean, Machiavellian and Utilitarian ethical principles, to name but a few, having notions such as "the greatest good of the greatest number" or freedom, as motivating ideals. The "Golden Mean" of Aristotle is a vertical way of life recommended by him. In the world of political ethics, we have a galaxy of other names, from Hobbes and Rousseau to Tolstoy, Emerson and Gandhi. Textbooks of ethics, such as that of Sedgewick, are increasing in size regularly, and new chairs for Ethics and Religion are being instituted in universities the world over. The ramifications into which this subject has now expanded have become so great that college student is unable to answer the simplest basic questions on such an

257

important subject touching the welfare of humanity. This is due to the endless compartmentalisation and specialisation of disciplines prevalent today, stressing the varieties of a subject rather than its unitive aspects.

India has here again a vast store-house of wisdom that could help toward the reintegration of such value-based objects as ethics, aesthetics and education. Economics is also of the same group of subjects concerned directly with human values. Sanskrit literature contains valuable hints on how to treat these apparently different academic disciplines under the aegis of one integrating Science of all sciences, having human life- significance in the most general of terms.

THE NORMATIVE NOTION
Ethics has to have a normative reference in the Self of man. Take away the Self from the total ground of ethics, and what could be imagined as the end-result of ethics would at once evaporate and disappear. The benefits of ethics must necessarily have a beneficiary. Putting these two sides together is the secret of the unitive contemplative approach to ethics, so well-known to the Upanishadic rishis (seers). As Yajnyavalkya puts it in the famous passage from the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, "It is not for the sake of the wife that the wife is dear, but for the sake of the self that she is dear" - and so in every case where two counterparts, one belonging to the self and the other belonging to the non-self, are involved. These two sides have to be properly distinguished as the two sides of a reversible equation involved together in the same context of the Absolute Self. To recognize the counterparts properly and to treat them as interacting unitively, without horizontal interests creating conflicts, is the way of correct ethics, to whatever department it might happen to relate, public or domestic.

What is good for oneself has also to be good for the other man: this is the basic formula to be followed in all ethics, when boiled down to its basic elements. Narayana Guru has put his finger correctly on some of these ethical principles, viewed in terms of such a bipolar dialectical dynamism, in some of

258

the verses of his "Atmopadesa Satakam", by quoting which we shall have said what is basically necessary in respect of this very important subject. Such an approach might not seem to have academic dignity, but it surely brings us nearer to a clear view of the problems involved in the subject.

"Interestedness is but of one kind, but puzzlement
Prevails variously with regard to objects of interest, such as
What is dear to me, what is dear to you and what is dear to another;
What is dear to oneself, do realise to be dear to another too

The other man's interest, that is even mine; what to oneself
Is beneficial is so for the other man also; such is the course of
Discrete conduct. All acts aiming each man's Self-happiness
Must spell at once the happiness of the other fellow-man.

For the sake of fellow-man, unceasing, day and night,
Unstinting strives a kindly man;
The niggard, lying prone, what frustration's toil undertakes,
That is for his own sake alone.

What here we view as this man or that,
Reflection reveals to be the Self's prime form;
That conduct adopted for one's Self-happiness,
Another's happiness must also secure at once.

What spells benefit to one, while to another disaster brings,
Such conduct is one that violates the Self; beware!
Those who cause intense grief to another,
Into inferno's ocean they fall, there to burn in flames."

(Verses 21-25)

259

Ethics is not to be conceived as depending on the conduct of a good man taken by himself; it is to be understood as a double-edged situation cutting both ways. It has to be conceived not as a lame or one-sided affair, but as a process in which donor and beneficiary belong to a unitive and universal context. Violation of the unitive self-hood on the one side is equated here (v. 25) with its dialectical counterpart of a general fire of inferno, for which the spark of pain given to a single individual could be the partial stimulus to create a wholesale reaction. Just as intense pain at the tip of one's toe would suffice to upset the balance of the whole person in suffering, so the subtle reciprocity implied here, when the slightest discrimination is made between favourites and enemies, brings unforeseen quantitative or qualitative effects. Consequences flare up into a general conflagration. The sum-total of human suffering consists of small sparks of partiality by men somewhere or other at one time or another. The general cause of war should be thought of in this way. Like one spark setting fire to the neighbouring faggot, the continuity of the process of evil effects is to be imagined as operating ceaselessly in the world of human relations. Clashes of clan,time-old feuds, racial, national or other rivalries and preferential pacts, all work together to keep the flames of inferno constantly fed with fuel, and burning incessantly.

When the dualistic attitude has once been abolished and generosity spreads evenly like sunlight without distinction on all human beings, even on the publican and the sinner, that kind of generosity belongs to the context of the absolutist way of life and is one that, in the context of Self-realization, is very important to keep in mind. The self can itself become the worst enemy of the self. This has been brought out with the full force of delicate dialectics in the Bhagavad Gita (VI. 6).

In short, one has to learn to live and let live, and to be more concerned in the happiness of the other fellow man, without imposing false frontiers or artificial barriers between man and fellow man. A dynamic, generous and open attitude is to be recommended if frontiers are to be abolished as they must be, and we are to be correctly dedicated to the cause of peace.

INDEX
A
Absolute, the
dialectically revalued, 350
fall of-, 123, 158, 349
science of the, 269
surplus-value, 121
Absolutism,
Hegelian, 122
Abstraction,
levels of-, 337
Abundance, 91
the world of-, 95 f, 129
worth of-, 138
Action,
five factors of-, 244
Adoption,
mutual, 24
Advaita Vedanta
and human welfare, 3 f
and rival aspects, 4
Advisers,
economic, 83, 98
Ambivalence, 238
Anti-Absolutism, 349
Apperception,
principle of-, 173
Aristotle,
contribution of-, 266
Art,
essence of-, 347
Association of ideas
Hume on, 277
Atman, 189
analysis of-, 222
and the Absolute, 269
Atma-Vidya, 269
Axiology,
way to, 342

B
Banking,
origin of-, 56
favouring features of-, 56
Barbarity,
modern, 10
Bergson,
Henri, 169, 187 f, 190, 284, 293
and Eddington, 328
relied on, 351
Bhagavad Gita, 179, 182, 187, 195, 201, 207, 220, 231, 241, 243 f, 259,
Bloomfield,
credo of-, 337
Brahmacarin, 181, 183
Brahmavidya,
the science of sciences, 267, 269

C
Candide, 50, 114
Capital,
climate and economics, 138
defined, 134
Carrel,
Dr. Alexis, 213
Cartesian,
co-ordinates, 126
tradition, 124
Categorical imperative, 180
Certitude,
vertical, and horizontal, 312, 360
Characterology, 236
Child,
as a human, 184
Colour-solid
and psycho-physics, 304f
as a proto-linguistic model, 308, 313, 357, 360
Common language
normalized, 360
Common-sense language, 309
and science, 352
characteristic of-, 310
Communism as a religion, 252
Compte, 49, 79
failure of-, 120
Consciousness, 187
analysis by Narayana Guru, 196 ff., 222
component elements of-, 196, 218
dichotomy at the core of-, 218
directions of radiation, 351
four zones of-, 22 ff.
Kant on, 320
neutral, 348
Conflicts,
resolving of-, 16
Contemplative life in East and West, 182
Creative evolution, 188
Credit
abstract, 113
and gold, 76
and God, 76
and trust, 139
money, 56
moral aspects of-, 100 f
mysteries of-, 98
two aspects of-, 97
Culture,
flagging of-, 267
influence of pragmatism, 265

D
Das Kapital, 76, 89, 122
Definition, 308
Dewey, John, 156, 159, 179, 195 f, 221, 228 f
Dialectical approach
and sex variation, 233
and pure mathematics, 342 ff.
Bergson's, 189
in education, 184, 209
mechanism of-, 122 f, 228
personal, 20 ff., 208
superior to the rational, 219
the correct, 187
the essence of-, 4 f, 60, 220
to economics, 65, 142
to politics, 4
to values, 5, 220
Dialectical materialism, 37
Dialectical reasoning, 62
Dialectical revaluation of values, 7
Dialectical Wisdom, 23, 60, 220
in the Bible, 60
Dialectics
and Absolutism, 349
and human values, 7
and wisdom, 7
ascending and descending, 268
concern of-, 346
Hegel's, 343
in Economics, 134, 143
in World literature, 176
of Ethics, 259
of one and the many, 143
resolves disasters, 209
science of-, 7
the crowning attainment of-, 231
the greatest textbook of-, 187
Dilipa,
a just ruler, 49
Duality,
abolition of-, 219

E
East and West meet, 223
Economic activity,
four-concerned, 149
Economic crisis
sign of-, 140
Economic man at cross roads, 91 f
Economic measurement,
yardstick of-, 83, 88, 116
Economic progress
reversal of-, 102
Economic situation,
four limbs of-, 120, 126
simplified, 65
Economics
a religion, 79, 81, 131
aim of-, 73, 87, 118, 130, 132
an Absolutist approach, 48, 102 f
and ethics, 87 f, 92
and human touch, 76
and liberty, 44
and political conservatism, 75
and religion, 71, 84, 110, 112, 121 f
and statistics, 46
an enemy, 81
as a dismal science, 46, 142
as a game, 94
as a normative science, 65
as a science, 79, 109, 144
as Value-wisdom, 77, 115, 118, 125
axiologically based, 49, 131
basis of-, 43
burial of-, 82
complete theory of-, 47 f, 102, 111
comprehensive definition of-, 115
conflict in, 43, 109
dangers in, 43f
death of-, 80
double gain in, 60, 93, 134, 143
drawbacks of-, 73
dualistic, 133
ethical, 98, 101
factors in, 47 f, 11 ff.
frame of reference revised, 76
good, 130, 132
is for man, 65, 78, 87, 111, 116, 138
in Sanskrit literature, 51
Jevons on, 69, 73
Kalidasa on, 49 f
Keynes on, 73
lament for, 79
man at the core of-, 116
Mill on, 73
nature of-, 72
normal, 74, 77, 121, 130
normative approach to, 103
not a normative science, 84
present-day, 102
restated, 143
questionable practices, 44 ff.
scientific, 75, 92, 117 f
scope and limits of-, 73, 115
series of value worlds in, 75
single defect of-, 84
two poles of-, 92, 95, 127, 129
two worlds of-, 61, 75, 113, 115, 127,131
uncertainty in, 95
value and, 84f
Economic theory,
three schools of-, 64
Economic Value,
evolution of-, 112
Economists,
as charlatans, 79
good, 118
interest in, 73
Eddingtonianism, 317, 322 f, 366
Educability, 208
Educated man, 200
Education,
a bipolar process, 160, 163, 221
Absolute necessity in. 201
a dialectical situation, 165, 208
alpha and omega of-, 202
and higher values, 165
and social values, 229 f
and sex variation, 233
and values, 157
a pleasure, 210
background aspect in, 209
bipolar relation in, 164, 180 f, 207
central notion in, 199
content of-, 202 ff., 205, 207
contradiction in, 168 f
defined, 155, 200, 205
dialectical counterparts in, 163 f
dialectical way in, 220
effective, 221
ends and means, 200
for man and citizen, 158, 168 f
four stages of-, 159 f, 224 f, 298
fresh start of-, 176f
fundamental, 171
future of-, 220, 223
hesitancy today, 216
idealistic, 230
inhibitory crises in, 211
integration of-, 265
interest as basis, 173
law of equilibrium in, 205
lifetime, 159
Main plank in, 223
mind-matter duality in, 213
modern endeavour in, 170
mutual adoption in, 221
naturalistic, 227'
new orientation in, 174
normalisation of-, 298
one-sided approach in, 156
personal adjustment in, 214
personal factor in, 164f, 180
philosophical bases of-, 225, 298
positive process of-, 206 f
practical guidelines, 209 ff.
private and public, 173
public standard in, 173 f
specialisation in, 263 f
three kinds of-, 173
three laws of-, 204 f
to save humanity, 163
tragic paradoxes in, 157
well-founded, 220
Educational institutions,
four patterns of-, 235 f
Educator,
the task of-, 206
the best, 206
a gardener, 208
a midwife, 208
Elan vital, 180, 284 f, 294
Emile, 155, 158, 160, 168, 172, 175, 179, 181f, 184, 226, 242
Empiricists,
place of-, 366
Engels' law, 81
Entelechies, 204
Epistemology,
revised, 359
Ethics,
Absolutist, 259
cause of violation, 256
correct, 257
dialectical basis of-, 255, 257
dialectical counterparts of-, 256
first desideratum of-, 255
normalized, 255 ff.
normative notion in, 257
Evolution theory,
scientific status of-, 279 f
Existentialists
place of-, 367
Experimentation,
introspective, 284 f
on personality, 291
Exploiters as advisers, 58, 74, 76

F
Finance,
a dragon, 54
Fluctuation,
theories of-, 62
Forces,
horizontal and vertical, 135 f
Four-fold scheme,
justification of-, 225
Free enterprise,
limits of-, 39 ff.
Fundamental education, 166

G
Geneva declaration, 175
Geo-dialectical approach, 5
advantage of-, 24
basis of-, 17
defined, 7 f
Geo-dialectics
and dialectics, 8
and world Govt., 12
Geo-politics, 4f, 23
Gestalt psychology, 237
God,
scientifically conceived, 244
Gold,
and capital, 76
and God, 53, 112
and goodness, 6
and paper money, 54
and spirituality, 57
as an economic value, 77
a source of wickedness, 77
the best use of-, 62
the two poles of value, 59
value of-, 53 ff., 63
virtual and actual, 63, 77
Golden mean, 63
Good and bad
cancelling of-, 7
conflict between, 6
Good economic living, 91
Gods,
internal and external, 78, 87
kingdom of economical, 142
Goodwill, 138
Government,
mandate for, 17
Gresham's law, 60
Gurukula education, 181, 183 f
Guru-sisya relationship, 223, 226

H
Handling action language, 310
Happiness,
actualisation, 8, 117, 132
dialectical counterparts of-, 8, 129
of all and the general, 96
public and private, 92f
sharable and not, 96

Happy man, 39
the most desirable for, 126
as yardstick of economics, 116, 135
Heuristic method, 173
Horizontal values, 115, 127
Humanity,
lovers of-, 49
Human life,
and unitive thinking, 7
basis of-, 6 f
good and evil in, 6
Human values
and dialectics, 7
and perfect man, 200 f
necessary and contingent, 8
network of, 109 ff.
vertical scale of, 7, 269

I
Idealism,
diagnostics of-, 231
Hegelian, 126
highest limits of-, 231
in education, 230 f
Idealistic Education, 159
Incertitude in Economics, 113
Inflation, 54, 139
Integration of sciences,
clear pattern of-, 350
key to, 269
Intellectual formation, 264
Internationalism
negativism in, 15, 21
relativism in, 16
the present, 9, 15
Introversion and extroversion, 238
Intuitive approach, 186

K
Kalidasa
on Economics, 50
on stages of education, 159, 161
Kant
schematism of-, 318
L
Labour,
Positive and negative, 148
respect for, 226
vertical and horizontal, 139
Language,
and thought, 273 ff.
archetypal patterns of-, 307 f
as a vertical process, 329
basis of-, 350
basis of structure, 274, 336
business of-, 334
domain of-, 272, 284, 338
hierarchies in, 337
norm of ordinary, 347
scientific, 272 f, 307
the doorway to philosophy, 339
true science of-, 347 f
two grades of-, 309
two worlds of-, 276
link between, 302
participation with the, 276
validity of-, 274
League of Nations, 16
Leibniz, 217, 282
on universal language, 271
Lies,
three kinds of-, 61
Life tendencies, 189
problems of-, 216
Limited liability,
honesty of-, 140
Linguistic space, 338
Linguistic Structure,
archetypal model of-, 275
axes of-, 286 f
normative appraisal of-, 288
observations, 283, 285
two dimensions of-, 287 f
Logical Empiricists,
attitudes of-, 33 f
failure of-, 360
Logical tradition,
gap in, 123
Logic,
movement of-, 344
Logistics,
role of-, 334 f

M
Mahabali,
a just ruler, 49
Malthusian theory, 46, 62, 80, 86, 141
Man,
and Economics, 85, 88
as measuring rod, 87, 129
economic, double reference to, 91
economic value of-, 85 ff., 118, 129, 137
study of-, 215
Man as a whole, 220
Marshall, 64, 75 ff., 115
Marx, 64, 76, 89, 111, 118, 121, 125, 127 f
Mass re-education, 232
Mean,
doctrine of the, 266 ff.
Meaning,
two ways of giving, 311
Mechanistic approach
dangers of-, 8
to vital problems, 80
Meta-language, 118
defined, 331 f
innate defects of-, 273
nature of-, 308
Methodology,
revised, 359
Mill, J.S., 76. 98, 267
cannons of-, 281
on political economy, 73
utilitarianism of-, 156
Mind and matter, 187, 219
common ground of-, 326
Monad in Economics, 130, 134
Money
and enjoyment, 114
and wealth, 114
as wealth, 78
as measure, 78
Montessori method, 156, 173
popularity of-, 174
Myth language, 59

N
Narayana Guru, 58, 197, 218
analysis of consciousness by, 196 ff.
on Ethics, 257 f
Naturalism,
of Rousseau and Spencer, 227
Naturalistic education, 159, 227 f
Natural religion, 179
Natural resources,
economic value of-, 74
Nature,
an Absolute Value, 227
contact with-, 228
Rousseau's concept of-, 178, 180, 227
Negative education, 158 f, 173
a regulating principle, 225 f
implications of-, 179 ff., 206
meaning of-, 226
Neutral epistemology, 330 f
Neutral monism, 186, 213, 283 f, 307
New Education Movement, 171
Nivritti marga, 179
Normal economics, 74
Normalisation, 281, 297, 307, 311, 361
to accomplish, 361
two senses of-, 316
in Economics, 135
of language, 311 ff.
Normative frame of reference, 50
Normative notion,
for a science of language, 359
how to build up, 112, 119, 124, 287f
in Economics, 105
in Education, 232, 235
in Science and language, 316
in scientific language, 281, 307
need of-, 110, 121
of Russell, 282
outline features of-, 129, 134, 136, 287
proto-linguistic, 315
relation-relata complex of-, 117
scientifically valid, 296
the principal contribution, 350
Normative rules,
violation of-, 324 f

O
Objectivity,
real and virtual, 363
Observables and calculables,
balance of-, 280 f, 307, 309, 360
One-World Economics,
scope of-, 117, 143
Opportunities available, 239 ff.
Opulence and abundance
a middle of-, 63, 91
and scientific economics, 77
ascending pyramid of-, 97
as counterparts, 69, 77
distinguished, 46, 61, 69, 77, 81, 95, 129
new problems of-, 102
Original-sin economics, 120

P
Parkinsonianism, 48
Passion and person, 231
Person in education, 212
Personal factor,
a central concept, 185, 213
analytical perspective of-, 212 ff.
an organism, 188
approach to, 187
a reality, 186
a unit, 190 f
explicit traits of-, 200
functional zones of-, 191 f
grades of-. 187
important aspect of-, 221
most elementary aspect, 189 f
psycho-dynamical aspects of-, 212
reconstructed, 193
schematic representation of-, 188
synthetic perspective of-, 185 ff.
two sides of-, 185
unitively treated, 213
Personal rhythm, 210
Personality,
experiment on, 290 f, 298
Personification,
in teaching, 210 f
Phenomenologists,
place of-, 367
Phenomenology, 124
Physiocrats, 82, 87 f, 113
fundamentals of-, 103, 125
watered down, 82
Planning,
role of-, 131
Plotinus,
a meeting point, 189
Political economics,
Keynes on, 79 f
Mill on, 73
scope of-, 43
Politics,
and geo-politics, 4
and spiritual life, 4 f
dialectical approach to, 4
emergence of-, 5
Johnson on, 3
Population control, 76, 87, 140
a suicidal madness, 141
Population,
maximum, minimum and optimum, 81
Poverty,
and 'poverty', 99
hidden, 136
unhappiness and, 98
Pragmatic education, 159, 228 f
failure of-, 230
Pragmatism, revolt from, 215 f
Probability and possibility, 279
Problems,
cancelling out of-, 38
Production,
two kinds of-, 148
Project-method, 156, 228
Protocol language, 310
Proto-language
and meta-language, 273, 331
and scientific philosophers, 379
basis of-, 318
Bergson uses, 326
Carnap suggests, 333
Empiricists and, 354 f
in complex numbers, 32 f
in Leibniz, 320 f, 322 f
model of-, 308
of Eddington, 325
reconstructed, 277, 308
un-normalized, 322
Whittaker on, 322 f
Proto-linguism
in Economics, 111, 118, 123, 126, 128 f, 147 ff.
Psycho-analysis, 237
Psychology meets physics, 316
Psycho-physical axis, 293

Q
Quesnay, 49, 87, 107, 111 f, 118, 121, 125, 127, 135, 147 f
economic theory of-, 103, 105f, 125

R
Rationalists,
places of-, 366
Reaction,
personal, 209
complete, 210
Reason,
hypostatic status of-, 218
Reasoning,
horizontal and vertical, 344
Relativity,
theory of-, 123
Religion,
natural, 179
Religions,
one goal of-, 252
saving factor in, 253
two paths of-, 253
Religious groups,
classification of-, 250 f
Renormalisation, 281, 307, 361
of language, 308
Republic, The, 75, 77
Restated economics, 143
Revaluation of values, 114
of methodology, 124
Richest country, 78, 116
Rousseau, J.J., 5, 35 f, 49 f, 50, 69, 113 f
a contemplative, 175
a jagad-guru, 183
and Dewey, 229 f
and social education, 179
and Spencer, 227
an enigma, 172 f
as citizen of Geneva, 243
a yogi, 182
champion of human values, 182
developments after, 172 f
dialectical idiom of-, 176
faces paradoxes, 157 f
father of education, 155, 168, 171
laughed at, 168
mistrust in, 172
mystical note in, 182
on politics, 5, 35 f
on types of states, 63 f
secret of-, 228
Ruskin, 43, 46, 49, 54, 75, 78, 87 ff., 115, 147
protests, 88
Russell, Bertrand, 186, 213, 283, 307
on logical form, 277

S
Scarcity economics,
counterparts of-, 75
impasse created by, 45, 74 f
Scepticism and belief, 252
Scepticism,
a religion, 253
Schematism,
and aesthetics, 347
and ethics, 347
and mysticism, 347
of Bergson, 326 ff.
of Hume, 320
of Kant, 318
of Milton, 320
Scheme of correlation, 238
Science,
criterion of-, 306
distinguished, 337
falls apart, 109
results as, 276 f
vertico-horizontal structure of-, 353
Science of Sciences, 119, 257, 266 f
Sciences,
certitude in, 278, 352
integration of-, 263
positive and negative, 267
Scientific activity,
different levels of-, 278
domain of-, 278
linguistic scheme of-, 277
typical pattern of-, 278
Scientific language,
absurdities in, 280, 312
and common language, 356
and structure of thought, 315 f
calculables in, 279 f
certitude of-, 274, 278
desiderata of-, 272 f
elements in, 276 f
horizontal inclinations of-, 13, 357 f
horizontalization of-, 311 ff.
meta-linguistic levels of-, 355 f
misplaced enthusiasm for, 358
name and form in, 376
normalisation of-, 311
normative factor in, 281
observables in, 279 f
origin of-, 352
proto-linguistic levels of-, 354, 356
range of-, 276
suggestions on, 359 ff.
three levels of-, 356
thrives in, 277
Scientific thinking, 274, 352
Scientific validity, 315
Scientism, 293
two worlds of-, 365
Self,
as seat of bliss and suffering, 4
Semiosis, 335
Sensation and reaction, 191
Servitude,
ideological, 83
Sex variation,
laws of-, 233 f
Sin in economics, 116, 137
of the present age, 87
Slavery persists, 142
Smith, Adam, 58, 64, 76, 125, 135, 147
concern of-, 73
Social Contract, 5, 203
Space,
logical, 305 f
two aspect of-, 305
Spiritualism and materialism,
reconciliation of-, 37
Standard of life,
meaning of-, 132
Statistics,
a lie, 46, 61
Surplus-value. 107, 127
absolute and relative, 122, 124, 126
emergence of-, 121, 128, 133
Theory, 45
Svadharma, 207

T
Tableau Economique, 104, 112, 127, 135, 148
scrutinized, 105
Tao Teh Khing, 205
Thing-language, 310
Thinking,
two kinds of-, 292
Thought,
and colour-solid, 313 f
as a global whole, 360
divisions of-, 366
horizontal axis of-, 359
integrated norm of-, 306
outline of-, 309 f
pairs in, 307
process, 195, 290
structure of-, 290, 294, 302, 306
unit of-, 306
vertical axis of-, 359
Tariff, 140
Trust, 134, 138
Turiya, 194
Type-psychology, 239
in education, 236
unitive, 238
Types,
psychological, 237

U
UNESCO
empty content of-, 170
failure of-, 166 f
Unemployment and leisure, 140
Unified language,
and languages, 357
derived, 312, 346, 365
efforts by logical empiricists, 335
elements unified, in, 276
goal of-, 272, 274, 281
main findings on, 359
Unified science
and sciences, 357
defined, 271
United Nations, 16
negativism in, 15
relativism in, 16
Unitive approach
to language, 272
Unitive vision
in economics, 65, 121, 130
suspected, 215
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 29 f
Universities,
defeat of-, 171
Upanishads, 147, 205
Utility, 73
Utopia, 75

V
Value,
the Absolute, 109
and Economics, 84 f, 108 f, 112, 118
and price, 112
labour theory of-, 85
Value-Wisdom,
economics as, 115, 121, 131
problems of-, 110
Values,
Absolute, 132f
and personal tendencies, 204
basic conflict in, 204
circulation, 125, 130
exchangeable and not, 73 f
four aspects of-, 125, 128, 130
horizontal and vertical, 115, 127, 129, 132 f, 203 f, 218, 268
contrasted, 218
negative and positive, 118, 125,127 f
possible worlds of-, 75 f, 115
pure, 133
real and false, 58
vertical, 115, 127
Vasana, 194
Vedanta, 108, 113, 179, 189, 214
Vertical,
the, defined, 309
Virtue and Wisdom, 117
Voltaire on Economics, 50, 113 f,
172, 175,208

W
War crimes and justice, 10
Watson, J.B.,
on child, 214
Wealth,
best, 133
capital and, 74. 76
common value reference, 105
four limbs of-, 133
healthy circulation of-, 133
horizontal circulation of-, 106, 134
is not money, 114
non-mercantilist notion of-, 77
positive and negative, 110,121
the only, 78
the real, 116, 126 f
three strata of circulation, 106
vertical and horizontal, 97
Wealth of Nations. 73, 82, 125, 135
Well-being,
measure for, 135
Wells, H.G., 155. 157, 169, 172
Whittaker, 322 ff.
Winter,
a weight of poverty, 138
Wisdom,
Absolute, 163
a foster mother, 243
and dialectics, 7, 176
and good and evil, 7
and world problems, 24, 163
a perennial way, 7
components of-, 217
lack of-,
in economics, 61
method of-, 6
Wittgenstein,
enigma of-, 339
on atomic facts, 322
on logical atomism, 282
on structure of language, 274
thesis of-, 334
Word system,
mapping of-, 362 f, 367
Work and joy, 139
World Government,
active programme of-, 23 ff.
an accomplished fact, 11
and danger of exclusiveness, 24
approach to, 7
a priori basis of-, 5, 14, 20
dialectical contract in, 13
functions of-, 7, 10, 12, 20 f, 29
its power, 12
its presence, 13
jurisdiction of-, 31
justification of-, 11
revenue of-, 31 f
success of-, 24 f
the asset of-, 25, 32
to make it effective, 25 f
validity of-, 12
what it is not, 19
zero hour for, 9
World law,
and the good of all. 34
dialectical formula for, 34
dialectical Interaction in, 36
general good in, 34
guidelines for, 35
structural perspective of, 34f
World passport, 29
World politics
practising it, 26
World problems,
spiritual solutions to, 37
Wrong economics, 69

Y
Yoga, 159,184
defined, 176
Yogi,
and economist, 130, 220
perfect, 195

THE DIALECTICS OF GOLD

T-O-T’ = Time Axis, S-O-S’ = Space Axis, O = Intersection of Value Axes,

H = Hoarded Gold, Or = Ornamental Gold used for False Credit, M = Gold in Mines

V = Gold Supposed to be in the Vaults of Reserve Banks

CREDIT

S´

DEMAND

SUPPLY

OPULENCE

PRICE VALUE

COMMODITY VALUE

INTEREST

DISCOUNT

AREA OF ABUNDANCE OF VALUE

T´

TRUST

AdvaitaVedanta Website - Introduction

WORLD GOVERNMENT, ECONOMICS, EDUCATION, RELIGION AND ETHICS